The  Study 
of  History 
in  Schools 


Report  of  the 
Committee 
-of  Seven 

ia 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 
THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 
LOS  ANGELES 


The  Study  of  History  in  Schools 


The   Study  of 
History    in    Schools 

REPORT  TO  THE 
AMERICAN   HISTORICAL  ASSOCIATION 

BY 

The  Committee  of  Seven 

ANDREW  C.  MCLAUGHLIN,  Chairman 
HERBERT  B.  ADAMS  CHARLES   H.   HASKINS 

GEORGE  L.  FOX  LUCY  M.  SALMON 

ALBERT  BUSHNELL  HART     H.  MORSE  STEPHENS 


fforft 
THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

LONDON :  MACMILLAN  AND  CO.,  LTD. 
1915 

All  rights  reserved 


COFYRIGHT,    1899, 

BY  THE  AMERICAN   HISTORICAL  ASSOCIATION. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped  June,  1899.      Reprinted  January, 
I9<»   I   November,  1901  ;  March,  1903;  July.  1904  ;  December 
1906;  August,  1909;  September,  igia;  September,  1914; 
I  December,  1915. 


NorfoooB  13rfsa 

1.  S.  Gushing  &  Co.  -  Berwick  &  Smith 
Norwood  Mau.  U.S.A. 


Education 
Library 
~T> 

14.1 


Preface 

IN  the  early  winter  of  1896  the  committee  mak- 
ing the  following  report  was  appointed  by  the 
American  Historical  Association  to  consider  the 
subject  of  history  in  the  secondary  schools  and 
to  draw  up  a  scheme  of  college  entrance  require- 
ments in  history.  Since  that  time  we  have  held 
five  meetings,  each  lasting  several  days;  at  each 
of  these  meetings  all  the  members  of  the  com- 
mittee have  been  present,  except  that  Professor 
Salmon  was  absent  in  Europe  during  the  last  two. 
Every  question  involving  doubt  has  been  carefully, 
thoroughly,  and  systematically  discussed,  and  in 
the  conclusions  here  presented  all  the  members 
concur. 

Of  the  seven  persons  composing  the  commit- 
tee only  one  is  a  teacher  in  a  secondary  school; 
three  others,  however,  have  been  secondary-school 
teachers,  while  others  have  been  actively  interested 
for  years  in  the  general  problems  under  considera- 


1267261 


vi  Preface 

tion.  Although  we  felt  that  we  had  at  the  beginning 
some  knowledge  of  the  situation,  and  knew  of  the 
difficulties  and  limitations  as  well  as  of  the  accom- 
plishments of  the  schools,  it  seemed  necessary  to 
make  a  careful  study  of  the  whole  question  and  to 
gather  information  concerning  the  conditions  and 
the  tendencies  of  historical  instruction.  We  have 
endeavored,  in  the  light  of  the  actual  facts,  to  pre- 
pare a  report  that  may  be  useful  and  suggestive 
to  teachers  of  history  and  that  may  furnish  to 
superintendents  and  principals  some  assistance  in 
the  task  of  framing  programmes  and  in  determin- 
ing methods  of  work.  We  have  sought  to  be 
helpful  rather  than  merely  critical  or  depreciatory, 
and  have  tried  to  consider  the  whole  field  in  a 
broad  and  general  way,  remembering  that  we  were 
making  suggestions  and  recommendations,  not  for 
the  schools  of  one  section  or  of  one  kind,  but  for 
the  schools  of  the  nation. 


Contents 


PAGE 

Preliminary  Work  of  the  Committee  i 

Value  of  Historical  Study 16 

Continuity  of  Historical  Study  and  the  Relation  of  His- 
tory to  Other  Subjects 27 

Four    Years'   Course,   consisting    of   Four   Blocks  or 

Periods 35 

Why  no  Short  Course  in  General   History  is   recom- 
mended      ........  44 

How  the  Different  Blocks  or  Periods  may  be  treated     .  53 

Ancient  History 53 

Mediaeval  and  Modern  European  History        .         .  59 

English  History 67 

American  History 74 

Civil  Government 81 

Methods  of  Instruction 86 

Sources 101 

Intensive  Study 1 1 1 

The  Need  of  Trained  Teachers 113 

College  Entrance  Requirements 119 

Entrance  Examinations 130 


viii  Contents 

APPENDIX   I 

FAG* 

The  Present  Condition  of  History  in  American  Second- 
ary Schools 137 

Choice  of  Subjects 139 

Order  of  Subjects 140 

Separate  College  Course 142 

Time  given  to  History 142 

Text-books 143 

Collateral  Reading 144 

Written  Work 145 

Use  of  Sources 146 

Teachers 147 

College  Requirements 148 

Summary        ........  149 

Circular 150 

Examples  of  Extended  Courses       .        .         .        .153 

APPENDIX   II 

Study  of  History  below  the  Secondary  Schools      .         .  158 

APPENDIX   III 

History  in  the  German  Gymnasia 173 

APPENDIX   IV 

History  in  French  Lyce"es 199 


Contents  ix 


APPENDIX  V 

PAGE 

History  in  English  Secondary  Schools  .        .        .        .210 


APPENDIX  VI 
History  in  Canadian  Secondary  Schools        .        .        .231 

APPENDIX   VII 

Some  Books  and  Articles  on  the  Teaching  of  History   .  239 
Books  with  which  Every  Teacher  of  History  should 

be  acquainted 240 

Other  Noteworthy  Books  on  Historical  Methods     .  242 
Ten  Useful  Articles  on  Methods  of  teaching  His- 
tory in  Secondary  Schools  .....  243 
Valuable  Works  in  Foreign  Languages  .         .         .  245 
Articles  on  the  Teaching  of  History  written  from 
the  Point  of  View  of  English  Schools          .         .  246 

APPENDIX  VIII 

Maps  and  Atlases 248 

Ancient  History 249 

Mediaeval  and  Modern  History       ....  250 

English  History 254 

American  History 254 

Index .        .        .        .  257 


Preliminary  Work   of  the 
Committee 


HISTORY  as  a  secondary  study  now  demands  seri- 
ous attention.  The  report  of  the  National  Com- 
missioner of  Education  for  1896-97  shows  that 
there  were  at  that  time  186,581  pupils  in  the  sec- 
ondary schools  studying  history  (other  than  United 
States  history).  No  statistics  have  been  collected 
to  show  the  number  studying  the  history  and  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States ;  but  there  is  good 
ground  for  saying  that,  if  such  students  were  taken 
into  account,  the  number  of  history  pupils  would 
be  found  to  exceed  two  hundred  thousand,  and 
would  perhaps  equal  if  not  exceed  in  number 
those  engaged  in  the  study  of  any  other  subject 
save  algebra.  According  to  the  statistics  of  the 
Bureau  of  Education,  the  number  of  pupils  study- 
ing history  (other  than  United  States  history)  has 
increased  one  hundred  and  fifty-two  per  cent  in  the 
last  ten  years,  a  rate  of  increase  below  that  of  only 
one  subject  in  the  curriculum.  These  simple  facts 


2  Preliminary  Work 

seem  to  make  it  plain  that  college  entrance  re- 
quirements, that  are  properly  based  upon  the  work 
and  tendencies  of  the  secondary  schools,  should 
include  a  liberal  amount  of  history  among  the 
prescribed  and  optional  studies. 

An  investigation  of  the  subject  of  history,  as  it 
is  studied  and  taught  in  the  secondary  schools, 
presents  many  difficulties.  Even  before  the  com- 
mittee began  seriously  to  consider  what  work  was 
to  be  done,  it  became  apparent  that  only  a  thorough 
study  would  be  profitable,  that  general  conclusions 
or  recommendations,  even  on  such  a  question  as 
that  of  college  entrance  requirements,  could  not 
be  made  without  an  examination  of  the  whole  field 
and  a  consideration  of  many  fundamental  princi- 
ples, or  without  ascertaining  what  was  now  doing 
in  the  high  schools  and  academies  of  the  country. 

Before  this  work  was  undertaken,  there  had  not 
been  any  systematic  attempt  of  this  kind ;  nor  had 
there  been  any  prolonged  effort  by  any  national 
association  to  present  the  claims  of  history,  or  to 
set  before  the  schoolmen  a  statement  of  what  might 
be  considered  the  value  of  historical  study  and 
the  place  which  it  should  occupy  in  the  school 
programme.  We  do  not  leave  out  of  consideration 
the  work  of  the  Committee  of  Ten,  nor  do  we 
underestimate  the  value  or  the  effect  of  the  able 
and  highly  interesting  report  of  the  Madison  Con- 


Previous  Discussions  3 

ference  on  History,  Civil  Government,  and  Eco- 
nomics ; 1  and  we  do  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that 
historical  instruction  in  the  secondary  schools  had 
often  been  discussed  in  pedagogical  conferences 
and  teachers'  associations.  Before  we  began  our 
work,  it  was  plain  that  there  was  an  awakening 
interest  in  this  whole  subject,  and  the  time  seemed 
to  be  at  hand  when  a  systematic  effort  would  meet 
with  response  and  produce  results.  But  in  spite 
of  all  that  had  been  done,  and  in  spite  of  this 
awakened  interest,  there  was  no  recognized  con- 
sensus of  opinion  in  the  country  at  large,  not  one 
generally  accepted  judgment,  not  even  one  well- 
known  point  of  agreement,  which  would  serve  as 
a  beginning  for  a  consideration  of  the  place  of 
history  in  the  high-school  curriculum.  Such  a 
statement  cannot  be  made  concerning  any  other 
subject  commonly  taught  in  the  secondary  schools. 
The  task  of  the  committee  was,  therefore,  to 
discover  the  actual  situation,  to  see  what  was  doing 
and  what  was  the  prevailing  sentiment,  to  localize 
and  establish  a  modicum  of  practices  and  prin- 
ciples, however  small  and  limited  it  might  be ;  and, 
having  apprehended  what  was  best  and  most  help- 

1  This  conference  was  held  in  December,  1892  ;  its  conclusions 
form  a  part  of  the  report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten,  published  by  the 
Bureau  of  Education  in  1893,  and  reprinted  by  the  American  Book 
Company,  New  York,  1894. 


4  Preliminary  Work 

ful  in  spirit  and  tendency  among  teachers  of  the 
country,  to  seek  to  give  that  spirit  expression  in  a 
report  that  would  be  helpful  and  suggestive,  and 
that  would  be  of  service  in  widening  the  field  of 
agreement  and  in  laying  the  foundations  for  a 
common  understanding. 

In  all  of  our  work  we  have  endeavored  not  only 
to  discover  any  agreement  or  common  understand- 
ing that  may  exist  among  American  teachers,  but 
to  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  local  conditions  and 
environments  vary  exceedingly,  —  that  what  may 
be  expected  of  a  large  and  well-equipped  school 
need  not  be  expected  of  a  small  one,  and  that 
large  preparatory  schools  and  academies,  some  of 
them  intentionally  fitting  boys  for  one  or  two  uni- 
versities, are  in  a  situation  quite  unlike  that  in 
which  the  great  majority  of  high  schools  are  com- 
pelled to  work.  We  have  sought  chiefly  to 
discuss,  in  an  argumentative  way,  the  general  sub- 
ject submitted  for  consideration,  to  offer  sugges- 
tions as  to  methods  of  historical  teaching  and  as 
to  the  place  of  history  on  the  school  programme, 
being  fully  aware  that,  when  all  is  said  and  done, 
only  so  much  will  be  adopted  as  appeals  to  the 
sense  and  judgment  of  the  secondary  teachers  and 
superintendents ;  and  that  any  rigid  list  of  require- 
ments, or  any  body  of  peremptory  demands,  how- 
ever judiciously  framed,  not  only  would,  but  should, 


Present  Conditions  5 

be  disregarded  in  schools  whose  local  conditions 
make  it  unwise  to  accept  them. 

The  committee  determined  that  every  reason- 
able means  should  be  used  to  ascertain  the  present 
condition  of  historical  study.  Several  hundred 
circulars  asking  for  information  were  sent  out  to 
schools  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  selected 
not  because  they  were  supposed  to  be  exception- 
ally good  or  exceptionally  bad,  or  unusually  strong 
in  historical  work,  but  because  they  were  recom- 
mended to  the  committee  by  competent  authority 
as  typical  schools.  Circulars  were  sent  to  different 
kinds  of  schools,  to  those  in  small  towns  as  well  as 
to  those  in  large  cities,  and  to  private  academies 
as  well  as  to  public  high  schools.  About  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  replies  have  been  received,  and  the 
information  thus  gathered  is  presented  and  dis- 
cussed in  Appendix  I.  to  this  report. 

But  to  seek  information  through  printed  inter- 
rogatories is  always  somewhat  unsatisfactory ;  and 
the  committee  therefore  used  other  means  also. 
Steps  were  taken  to  secure  full  discussions  in  the 
different  educational  associations  of  the  country, 
in  order  that  many  teachers  might  become  inter- 
ested in  the  work  of  the  committee  and  give  need- 
ful information,  and  in  order  that  there  might  be  a 
free  interchange  of  opinion  on  some  of  the  more 
important  problems  that  called  for  solution.  Dis- 


6  Preliminary  Work 

cussions  on  some  portions  of  our  report  have  been 
held  by  the  New  England  History  Teachers'  As- 
sociation, the  Association  of  Colleges  and  Prepara- 
tory Schools  of  the  Middle  States  and  Maryland, 
the  Michigan  Schoolmasters'  Club,  the  Round 
Table  in  History  of  the  National  Educational  As- 
sociation, and  by  other  educational  bodies,  as  well 
as  at  two  meetings  of  the  American  Historical 
Association.  Moreover,  at  various  times  in  the 
course  of  the  past  two  years,  different  members  of 
the  committee  have  personally  consulted  teachers 
and  talked  the  subject  over  with  them.  These 
efforts  seem  to  demonstrate  that  we  have  not 
reached  conclusions  hastily,  and  that  our  report  is 
not  merely  the  expression  of  the  theoretical  aspira- 
tions of  college  professors  who  are  unacquainted 
with  the  conditions  of  the  secondary  schools.  It 
is  in  a  very  proper  sense  the  result  of  careful  ex- 
amination and  systematic  inquiry  concerning  the 
secondary  conditions  of  the  country. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  review  here  in  detail  the 
conclusions  reached  from  a  study  of  the  circulars 
received  from  the  schools.  It  will  be  seen  by  an 
examination  of  these  conclusions,  as  presented  in 
the  Appendix,  that  in  regard  to  many  matters  on 
which  we  sought  information  there  is  little  or  no 
agreement.  Concerning  the  amount  of  history 
offered,  the  fields  of  history  studied,  the  order 


Information  from  Teachers        7 

in  which  the  different  fields  are  taken  up,  and  the 
years  in  which  the  subject  is  taught,  there  is  much 
diversity  of  practice ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  we 
find  marked  approach  to  uniformity  in  one  par- 
ticular ;  namely,  that  good  schools  in  all  parts  of 
the  United  States  have  adopted  substantially  simi- 
lar methods  of  instruction.  It  is  perfectly  plain 
that  the  old  rote  system  is  going  by  the  board. 
Practically  every  school  now  reports  the  use  of  ma- 
terial outside  the  text-book,  and  recognizes  that  a 
library  is  necessary  for  efficient  work ;  and  nearly 
all  teachers  assign  topics  for  investigation  by  the 
pupil,  or  give  written  recitations,  or  adopt  like 
means  of  arousing  the  pupil's  interest  and  of  lead- 
ing him  to  think  and  work  in  some  measure  inde- 
pendently, in  order  that  he  may  acquire  power  as 
well  as  information.1  Of  course  these  methods 
are  more  extensively  developed  in  some  schools 
than  in  others ;  but  the  facts  point  to  a  common 
understanding,  or  at  least  to  the  approach  toward 
a  common  understanding,  of  what  history  teaching 
should  be,  and  to  a  growing  appreciation  of  what 
historical  study  can  do.  We  venture  to  say  that 
if  a  school  has  well-trained  teachers,  who  know 
why  they  teach  and  how  to  teach,  the  order  of 

1  Undoubtedly  the  report  of  the  Madison  Conference  had  a  very 
beneficial  influence  in  this  direction,  by  calling  the  attention  of  the 
teachers  of  the  country  to  what  ideals  of  historical  instruction  are. 


8  Preliminary  Work 

historical  studies,  or  the  exact  method  of  handling 
a  field  of  historical  inquiry,  is  comparatively  unim- 
portant; and  it  is  this  evidence  of  a  realization 
that  history  has  a  value  as  a  pedagogical  subject, 
indicating  as  it  does  a  new  interest  on  the  part  of 
teachers  and  directors  of  schools,  and  bringing 
surely  in  its  train  a  demand  for  skilful  teachers, 
which  should  give  courage  and  hope  to  those  who 
are  interested  in  the  successful  use  of  history  as  a 
means  of  discipline  and  culture. 

In  matters  of  detail,  the  conclusions  that  could 
be  drawn  from  the  replies  to  the  circulars  were 
somewhat  meagre,  but  they  were  helpful  in  eria- 
bling  the  committee  to  judge  of  tendencies  and  to 
form  a  general  opinion  as  to  existing  conditions. 
But,  as  we  have  already  said,  we  have  not  con- 
tented ourselves  with  this  method  of  ascertaining 
the  situation.  By  the  more  personal  means  adopted 
we  have  gained  information  which  cannot  readily 
be  tabulated,  but  which  enables  us  to  have  some 
assurance  concerning  the  tendencies  of  the  time, 
and  to  feel  that  in  many  respects  present  condi- 
tions are  not  satisfactory  to  the  active,  progressive 
teachers  of  the  country.  It  is  often  more  valu- 
able to  find  out  how  one  highly  successful  teacher 
attains  his  end  than  how  twenty  unsuccessful 
teachers  do  not ;  and  to  discover  what  practical, 
experienced  teachers,  who  have  given  thought  to 


Results  from  Circulars  9 

the  subject,  think  can  be  done  and  should  be  done, 
than  to  know  the  static  condition  of  twenty  others 
who  are  content  with  the  semi-success  or  the  fail- 
ure of  the  present. 

In  the  summer  of  1897  three  members  of  the  com- 
mittee were  studying  educational  problems  in  Eu- 
rope. Miss  Salmon  spent  the  summer  in  Germany 
and  German  Switzerland,  studying  the  methods 
of  historical  instruction  in  the  secondary  schools. 
The  results  of  her  investigations  were  given  in  a 
paper  read  before  the  American  Historical  Asso- 
ciation in  December,  1897.  Mr.  Raskins  has  at 
different  times  studied  the  educational  system  of 
France ;  after  a  further  examination  of  secondary 
conditions  in  1897,  he  prepared  a  report  on  the 
subject  of  history  teaching  in  that  country.  Mr. 
Fox  has  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  English 
public  schools,  and  has  prepared  a  report  on  the 
teaching  of  history  in  the  secondary  schools  of 
England.  These  articles  on  the  conditions  of 
historical  instruction  in  European  countries  are 
given  as  Appendices  to  this  report.  They  are  not 
offered  as  furnishing  us  models  to  which  we  ought 
to  conform,  but  as  investigations  in  the  study  of 
comparative  education ;  they  may,  however,  give 
to  teachers  of  this  country  suggestions  on  the 
subject  of  general  pedagogical  values,  methods 
of  historical  instruction,  and  the  arrangement  of 


io  Preliminary  Work 

studies.  The  committee  has  not  supposed  that  it 
is  possible  to  import  a  foreign-made  regime  to  which 
the  American  schools  can  be  asked  to  adapt  them- 
selves. 

It  will  be  seen  that  of  foreign  countries  Germany 
is  the  one  that  offers  to  America  the  most  lessons, 
of  which  probably  the  most  important  is  that  sug- 
gested by  the  great  advantage  resulting  from  hav- 
ing the  subject  of  history,  as  well  as  other  subjects, 
in  the  hands  of  thoroughly  equipped  teachers,  who 
have  received  instruction  in  method,  and  are  versed 
in  the  art  of  imparting  information  with  due  regard 
to  the  pupil's  age  and  degree  of  mental  advance- 
ment. In  the  German  gymnasia  the  course  of 
history,  from  Homeric  times  to  the  present  day, 
is  covered  with  great  thoroughness  and  system. 
To  this  part  of  the  report  on  the  German  schools 
we  wish  to  call  special  attention ;  for  while  we  do 
not  think  that  it  is  profitable  for  us,  even  in  this 
particular,  to  follow  the  German  curriculum  exactly, 
we  believe  that  there  should  be  an  effort  on  the 
part  of  those  who  are  organizing  programmes  to 
reach  toward  this  ideal,  by  extending  the  course 
of  history  over  a  number  of  years,  and  by  devel- 
oping it  in  accordance  with  the  psychological 
principles  which  have  been  adhered  to  in  the  prep- 
aration of  the  German  course  of  study.  It  should 
be  noticed  too  that  in  German  schools,  history  is 


German  Experience  n 

correlated  with  other  subjects :  the  teacher  of  his- 
tory, where  opportunity  offers,  makes  use  of  the 
foreign  language  which  the  pupils  are  studying, 
and  the  language  teacher  refers  to  historical  facts ; 
one  subject  in  the  curriculum  thus  helps  to  re- 
enforce  another.  The  methods  of  the  German 
teacher  also  deserve  careful  consideration  :  inter- 
est is  aroused  by  skilful  oral  teaching,  in  which 
the  teacher  adapts  his  story  to  the  minds  and 
capacities  of  his  hearers,  and  so  holds  their  atten- 
tion that  concentration  of  mind  and  ability  to  grasp 
the  subject  are  developed.  It  must  be  confessed 
that  Miss  Salmon's  description  of  how  a  teacher 
in  Bale,  in  the  middle  of  a  hot  summer  day,  held 
the  breathless  attention  of  a  class  of  boys  for 
fifty  minutes,  while  he  told  the  story  of  the  dra- 
matic struggle  between  Henry  IV.  and  Gregory 
VII.,  suggests  not  only  phenomenal  methods,  but 
unusual  boys;  but  withal  we  must  attribute  the 
teacher's  success  to  his  skill,  and  to  the  previous 
training  which  the  boys  had  received  in  the  lower 
grades,  where  inattention  or  heedlessness  was  not 
tolerated. 

Doubtless  teachers  of  history  in  this  country  can- 
not follow  the  example  of  German  teachers  in  all 
respects.  The  German  believes  that,  until  the  boy 
reaches  the  university,  he  has  no  judgment  to  be 
appealed  to,  and  no  great  reasoning  faculty  to  be 


12  Preliminary  Work 

developed  ;  that  it  is  his  business,  until  eighteen  or 
nineteen  years  of  age,  to  absorb,  not  to  argue  or 
discuss.  He  is  not  expected  to  ask  questions ;  he 
is  expected  to  do  what  he  is  told.  Such,  however, 
is  not  the  system  for  making  American  citizens, 
and  such  is  not  the  atmosphere  in  which  the  Amer- 
ican boy  or  girl  should  live.  Nor  can  it  be  said 
that  under  our  present  conditions  the  teacher  of 
history  should  attempt  to  give  instruction  to  sec- 
ondary pupils  without  the  help  of  a  text. 

The  system  and  methods  of  instruction  in  the 
schools  of  France  are  interesting,  but  somewhat 
less  suggestive  than  those  of  the  German  schools. 
There,  as  in  Germany,  history  is  in  the  hands  of 
trained  teachers,  who  have  a  capacity  for  holding 
the  pupil's  attention,  arousing  interest,  and  devel- 
oping a  love  for  historical  study,  as  well  as  for  giv- 
ing a  vast  amount  of  historical  information.  The 
course  of  study  is  long,  thorough,  and  systemati- 
cally organized.  The  conditions  of  German  Switz- 
erland are  essentially  similar  to  those  of  Germany 
itself. 

The  situation  in  England  does  not  offer  many 
valuable  lessons  to  American  teachers.  The  most 
noticeable  features  are  a  lack  of  historical  instruc- 
tion, a  common  failure  to  recognize  the  value  of 
history,  and  a  certain  incoherence  and  general  con- 
fusion. We  cannot  here  discuss  the  reasons  for 


France  and  England  13 

these  conditions.  It  is  enough  to  say  that  the  lais- 
sez  faire  idea  has  been  carried  farther  and  is  more 
marked  in  England  than  in  America;  for,  on  the 
whole,  we  have  an  educational  system,  and  each 
passing  year  shows  an  increase  in  the  common 
stock  of  principles.  And  yet  one  who  examines 
the  condition  of  historical  instruction  in  this  coun- 
try, and  compares  it  with  that  of  France  and 
Germany,  feels  that  Englishmen  and  Americans 
are  of  one  blood :  the  individualistic  spirit  of  the 
race  has  found  unusual  expression  in  educational 
practices,  and  has  made  against  cooperation  and 
harmony,  while  instinctive  aversion  to  theoretical 
arrangement  has  hindered  the  development  of  gen- 
eral principles.  A  comparison  of  English  con- 
ditions with  those  of  the  continent  will  be  likely 
to  show  the  value  of  system  and  order,  and  the 
advantage  resulting  from  the  sway  of  good  peda- 
gogical doctrines.  We  must  endeavor  in  America 
to  reach  a  system  of  our  own,  and  to  recognize  the 
force  of  sound  principles,  without  losing  sight  of 
the  fact  that  our  local  conditions  are  many,  and 
that  we  must  rely  on  individual  initiative  and  en- 
thusiasm, if  not  on  impulse.  Nevertheless,  in  spite 
of  local  diversity,  and  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  a 
rigid  regime  seems  on  the  whole  impossible  if  not 
undesirable,  in  this  country,  there  are  sound  gen- 
eral principles  that  may  be  termed  absolute  rather 


14  Preliminary  Work 

than  relative ;  there  is  a  proper  method  of  unfold- 
ing the  subject,  and  there  are  improper  methods  ; 
or,  to  speak  more  justly,  method  and  system, 
which  recognize  the  true  character  of  the  study 
and  the  principles  by  which  it  may  be  adapted  to 
pupils  of  different  ages,  are  certainly  wiser  and 
better  than  any  haphazard  method  and  lack  of 
system  can  be. 

While  it  is  impossible  to  transplant  any  foreign 
course  of  study  to  our  schools,  and  unwise  to  imi- 
tate blindly  European  methods  of  instruction,  there 
are  at  least  two  lessons  that  may  be  learned  from 
foreign  schools ;  namely,  the  wisdom  of  demanding 
thoroughly  trained  teachers  of  history,  and  that  of 
giving  a  large  place  to  historical  instruction  in  all 
courses.  In  both  France  and  Germany,  history  is 
taught  by  special  teachers,  whose  historical  training 
has  been  carried  to  a  point  well  beyond  our  Ameri- 
can bachelor's  degree,  and  whose  pedagogical  abil- 
ity has  been  specially  tested.  In  France  an  hour 
and  a  half  each  week  is  given  to  history  throughout 
the  ten  years  of  the  elementary  school  and  lycte  ; 
in  Germany,  history  is  pursued  two  or  three  hours 
weekly  in  every  year  of  the  nine  years  of  the  gym- 
nasium ;  and  even  in  Russia  the  time  given  to  his- 
tory is  much  longer  than  in  the  average  American 
school.  Not  merely  on  these  grounds,  however, 
do  we  ask  larger  recognition  for  history ;  we  hope 


Lessons  from  Abroad  15 

to  present,  in  the  course  of  this  report,  substantial 
reasons  for  such  recognition  drawn  from  the  nature 
of  the  subject  and  from  its  relations  to  the  devel- 
opment of  the  American  boys  and  girls ;  but  we 
call  attention  to  what  is  now  done  in  other  coun- 
tries as  evidence  that  our  recommendations  are  not 
fanciful  or  revolutionary. 


Value   of  Historical   Study 

IT  may  seem  to  be  unnecessary  to  consider  the 
value  of  historical  study  in  itself,  or  to  show  how 
history  may  be  related  to  other  subjects  in  the 
school  curriculum.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however, 
the  educational  value  of  every  other  subject  has 
received  more  attention  than  that  of  history ;  in- 
deed, only  within  the  last  few  years  has  there 
been  anything  like  a  thoughtful  discussion,  by 
practical  teachers,  of  the  worth  of  history  as  a  dis- 
ciplinary study.  When  so  much  has  been  said  of 
the  necessity  of  studying  the  natural  sciences,  in 
order  that  one  may  come  to  some  realization  of  the 
physical  and  vital  world  about  him,  and  may  know 
himself  better  as  he  knows  his  surroundings  more 
thoroughly,  and  in  order  that  his  powers  of  obser- 
vation may  be  quickened  and  strengthened,  it 
seems  strange  indeed  that  the  same  method  of 
argument  has  not  been  used  in  behalf  of  historical 
work.  If  it  is  desirable  that  the  high-school  pupil 
should  know  the  physical  world,  that  he  should 
know  the  habits  of  ants  and  bees,  the  laws  of  floral 

16 


Purpose  of  Education  17 

growth,  the  simple  reactions  in  the  chemical  retort, 
it  is  certainly  even  more  desirable  that  he  should 
be  led  to  see  the  steps  in  the  development  of  the 
human  race,  and  should  have  some  dim  perception 
of  his  own  place,  and  of  his  country's  place,  in  the 
great  movements  of  men.  One  does  not  need  to 
say  in  these  latter  days  that  secondary  education 
ought  to  fit  boys  and  girls  to  become,  not  scholas- 
tics, but  men  and  women  who  know  their  surround- 
ings and  have  come  to  a  sympathetic  knowledge 
of  their  environment ;  and  it  does  not  seem  neces- 
sary now  to  argue  that  the  most  essential  result 
of  secondary  education  is  acquaintance  with  politi- 
cal and  social  environment,  some  appreciation  of 
the  nature  of  the  state  and  society,  some  sense  of 
the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  citizenship,  some 
capacity  in  dealing  with  political  and  governmental 
questions,  something  of  the  broad  and  tolerant 
spirit  which  is  bred  by  the  study  of  past  times  and 
conditions. 

It  is  a  law  well  recognized  by  psychologists,  a 
law  of  which  the  teacher  in  school  or  college  sees 
daily  application  and  illustration,  that  one  obtains 
knowledge  by  adding  to  the  ideas  which  one 
already  has  new  ideas  organically  related  to  the 
old.  Recent  psychological  pedagogy  looks  upon 
the  child  as  a  reacting  organism,  and  declares  that 
he  should  be  trained  in  those  reactions  which  he 


1 8  Value  of  History 

will  most  need  as  an  adult.  The  chief  object  of 
every  experienced  teacher  is  to  get  pupils  to  think 
properly  after  the  method  adopted  in  his  particular 
line  of  work ;  not  an  accumulation  of  information, 
but  the  habit  of  correct  thinking,  is  the  supreme  re- 
sult of  good  teaching  in  every  branch  of  instruction. 
All  this  simply  means  that  the  student  who  is  taught 
to  consider  political  subjects  in  school,  who  is  led 
to  look  at  matters  historically,  has  some  mental 
equipment  for  a  comprehension  of  the  political  and 
social  problems  that  will  confront  him  in  every- 
day life,  and  has  received  practical  preparation 
for  social  adaptation  and  for  forceful  participation 
in  civic  activities. 

We  do  not  think  that  this  preparation  is  satis- 
factorily acquired  merely  through  the  study  of 
civil  government,  which,  strictly  construed,  has  to 
do  only  with  existing  institutions.  The  pupil 
should  see  the  growth  of  the  institutions  which 
surround  him ;  he  should  see  the  work  of  men ;  he 
should  study  the  living  concrete  facts  of  the  past ; 
he  should  know  of  nations  that  have  risen  and 
fallen ;  he  should  see  tyranny,  vulgarity,  greed, 
benevolence,  patriotism,  self-sacrifice,  brought  out 
in  the  lives  and  works  of  men.  So  strongly 
has  this  very  thought  taken  hold  of  writers  of 
civil  government,  that  they  no  longer  content 
themselves  with  a  description  of  the  government 


Relation  to  Government         19 

as  it  is,  but  describe  at  considerable  length  the 
origin  and  development  of  the  institutions  of  which 
they  speak.  While  we  have  no  desire  to  under- 
estimate the  value  of  civil  government  as  a  sec- 
ondary study,  especially  if  it  is  written  and  taught 
from  the  historical  point  of  view,  we  desire  to 
emphasize  the  thought  that  appreciation  and  sym- 
pathy for  the  present  is  best  secured  by  a  study  of 
the  past ;  and  while  we  believe  that  it  is  the  imper- 
ative duty  of  every  high  school  and  academy  to 
teach  boys  and  girls  the  elementary  knowledge  of 
the  political  machinery  which  they  will  be  called 
upon  to  manage  as  citizens  of  a  free  state,  we 
insist  also  that  they  should  have  the  broader 
knowledge,  the  more  intelligent  spirit,  that  comes 
from  a  study  of  other  men  and  of  other  times. 
They  should  be  led  to  see  that  society  is  in  move- 
ment, that  what  one  sees  about  him  is  not  the 
eternal  but  the  transient,  and  that  in  the  processes 
of  change  virtue  must  be  militant  if  it  is  to  be 
triumphant. 

While  it  is  doubtless  true  that  too  much  may  be 
made  of  the  idea  that  history  furnishes  us  with 
rules,  precepts,  and  maxims  which  may  be  used  as 
immutable  principles,  as  unerring  guides  for  the 
conduct  of  the  statesman  and  the  practical  poli- 
tician, or  as  means  of  foretelling  the  future,  it  is 
equally  true  that  progress  comes  by  making  addi- 


2O  Value  of  History 

tions  to  the  past  or  by  its  silent  modification. 
All  our  institutions,  our  habits  of  thought  and 
modes  of  action,  are  inheritances  from  preceding 
ages  :  no  conscious  advance,  no  worthy  reform, 
can  be  secured  without  both  a  knowledge  of  the 
present  and  an  appreciation  of  how  forces  have 
worked  in  the  social  and  political  organization  of 
former  times.  If  this  be  so,  need  we  seriously 
argue  that  the  boys  and  girls  in  the  schoolroom 
should  be  introduced  to  the  past,  which  has  created 
the  present,  —  that  historical-mindedness  should 
be  in  some  slight  measure  bred  within  them,  and 
that  they  should  be  given  the  habit,  or  the  begin- 
nings of  a  habit,  of  considering  what  has  been, 
when  they  discuss  what  is  or  what  should  be  ? 

Believing,  then,  that  one  of  the  chief  objects  of 
study  is  to  bring  boys  and  girls  to  some  knowledge 
of  their  environment  and  to  fit  them  to  become 
intelligent  citizens,  we  need  hardly  say  that,  if  the 
study  of  history  helps  to  accomplish  this  object,  the 
public  schools  of  the  country  are  under  the  heavi- 
est obligations  to  foster  the  study,  and  not  to  treat 
it  as  an  intruder  entitled  only  to  a  berth  in  a  cold 
corner,  after  language,  mathematics,  science,  music, 
drawing,  and  gymnastics  have  been  comfortably 
provided  for.  "It  is  clear,"  as  Thomas  Arnold 
has  said,  "  that  in  whatever  it  is  our  duty  to  act, 
those  matters  also  it  is  our  duty  to  study."  It  is 


Training  in  Citizenship         21 

true  that  any  subject  which  aids  the  pupil  to  think 
correctly,  to  be  accurate  and  painstaking,  which 
awakens  his  interest  in  books  and  gives  him 
resources  within  himself,  in  reality  fits  him  for 
good  and  useful  citizenship  ;  but  what  other  sub- 
jects do  in  this  direction  more  or  less  indirectly, 
history  does  directly ;  and  moreover,  if  properly 
taught,  it  is  not  inferior  to  other  subjects  as  a  dis- 
ciplinary and  educational  study.  Fortunately,  an 
examination  of  school  programmes,  educational 
periodicals,  and  like  material  will  now  convince 
any  one  that  educators  are  coming  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  history  must  receive  more  attention,  and 
must  be  taught  wisely  and  well. 

History  cultivates  the  judgment  by  leading  the 
pupil  to  see  the  relation  between  cause  and  effect, 
as  cause  and  effect  appear  in  human  affairs.  We 
do  not  mean  by  this  that  his  attention  should  be 
directed  solely  to  great  moving  causes,  or  that  he 
should  study  what  is  sometimes  called  the  "  phi- 
losophy of  history," — far  from  it;  nor  do  we 
mean  that  time  should  be  consumed  in  discussing 
the  meaning  of  facts  when  the  facts  themselves 
are  not  known.  But  history  has  to  do  with  the 
becoming  of  past  events,  —  not  simply  with  what 
was,  but  with  what  came  to  be,  —  and  in  studying 
the  simplest  forms  of  historical  narrative  even  the 
average  pupil  comes  to  see  that  one  thing  leads  to 


22  Value  of  History 

another ;  he  begins  quite  unconsciously  to  see  that 
events  do  not  simply  succeed  each  other  in  time, 
but  that  one  grows  out  of  another,  or  rather  out  of 
a  combination  of  many  others.  Thus,  before  the 
end  of  the  secondary  course,  the  well-trained  pupil 
has  acquired  some  power  in  seeing  relationships 
and  detecting  analogies.  While  it  is  perfectly  true 
that  the  generalizing  faculty  is  developed  late,  and 
that  the  secondary  pupil  will  often  learn  unrelated 
data  with  ease,  if  not  with  avidity,  it  is  equally  true 
that  history  in  the  hands  of  the  competent  teacher 
is  a  great  instrument  for  developing  in  the  pupil 
capacity  for  seeing  underlying  reasons  and  for 
comprehending  motives.  In  the  ordinary  class- 
room work,  both  in  science  and  in  mathematics, 
there  is  little  opportunity  for  discussion,  for  differ- 
ences of  opinion,  for  balancing  of  probabilities; 
and  yet  in  everyday  life  we  do  not  deal  with  math- 
ematical demonstrations,  or  concern  ourselves  with 
scientific  observations ;  we  reach  conclusions  by  a 
judicious  consideration  of  circumstances  and  con- 
ditions, some  of  them  in  apparent  conflict  with  one 
another,  and  none  of  them  susceptible  of  exact 
measurement  and  determination. 

The  study  of  history  gives  training  not  only  in 
acquiring  facts,  but  in  arranging  and  systematiz- 
ing them  and  in  putting  forth  individual  product. 
Power  of  gathering  information  is  important,  and 


Training  in  Judgment          23 

this  power  the  study  of  history  cultivates ;  but  the 
power  of  using  information  is  of  greater  importance, 
and  this  power  too  is  developed  by  historical  work. 
We  do  not  ask  that  pupils  should  be  required  to 
do  so-called  "laboratory  work,"  —  we  abjure  the 
phrase,  —  and  create  histories  out  of  absolutely  un- 
hewn and  unf ramed  material ;  we  simply  say  that, 
if  a  pupil  is  taught  to  get  ideas  and  facts  from  vari- 
ous books,  and  to  put  those  facts  together  into  a 
new  form,  his  ability  to  make  use  of  knowledge  is 
increased  and  strengthened.  By  assigning  well- 
chosen  topics  that  are  adapted  to  the  capacity  of 
the  pupil,  and  by  requiring  him  to  gather  his  in- 
formation in  various  places,  the  teacher  may  train 
the  pupil  to  collect  historical  material,  to  arrange 
it,  and  to  put  it  forth.  This  practice,  we  repeat, 
develops  capacity  for  effective  work,  not  capacity 
for  absorption  alone.1 

History  is  also  helpful  in  developing  what  is 
sometimes  called  the  scientific  habit  of  mind  and 
thought.  In  one  sense,  this  may  mean  the  habit 
of  thorough  investigation  for  one's  self  of  all 
sources  of  information,  before  one  reaches  con- 
clusions or  expresses  decided  opinions.  But  only 
the  learned  specialist  can  thus  test  more  than  the 

1  A  consideration  of  what  is  said,  in  a  later  division  of  this  re- 
port, on  the  methods  of  teaching,  will  show  more  fully  how  history 
may  be  used  to  this  end. 


24  Value  of  History 

most  ordinary  and  commonplace  truths  or  princi- 
ples in  any  field  of  work.  The  scientific  habit  of 
mind  in  a  broader  sense  means  a  recognition  of 
the  fact  that  sound  conclusions  do  rest  on  some- 
body's patient  investigations ;  that,  although  we 
must  accept  the  work  of  others,  everybody  is  re- 
quired to  study  and  think  and  examine  before  he 
positively  asserts;  that  every  question  should  be 
approached  without  prejudice ;  that  open-minded- 
ness,  candor,  honesty,  are  requisites  for  the  attain- 
ment of  scientific  knowledge.  The  thoughtful 
teacher  of  experience  will  probably  say  that,  even 
in  the  earlier  years  of  the  secondary  course,  these 
prime  requisites  of  wholesome  education  may  in 
some  measure  be  cultivated ;  and  that,  when  op- 
portunity for  comparative  work  is  given  in  the 
later  years,  historical-mindedness  may  be  so  de- 
veloped as  materially  to  influence  the  character 
and  habits  of  the  pupil. 

While  we  believe  that  power  and  not  informa- 
tion must  be  the  chief  end  of  all  school  work,  we 
must  not  underestimate  the  value  of  a  store  of 
historical  material.  By  the  study  of  history  the 
pupil  acquires  a  knowledge  of  facts  that  is  to  him 
a  source  of  pleasure  and  gratification  in  his  after 
life.  If  there  be  any  truth  in  the  saying  that 
culture  consists  of  an  acquaintance  with  the  best 
which  the  past  has  produced,  —  a  very  insufficient 


Training  in  Character  25 

definition,  to  be  sure,  —  we  need  not  argue  about 
the  value  of  historical  information.  But  we  may 
emphasize  that  brighter  and  broader  culture  which 
springs  from  a  sympathy  with  the  onward  move- 
ments of  the  past,  and  an  intelligent  compre- 
hension of  the  duties  of  the  present.  Many  a 
teacher  has  found  that,  in  dealing  with  the  great 
and  noble  acts  and  struggles  of  bygone  men,  he 
has  succeeded  in  reaching  the  inner  nature  of  the 
real  boys  and  girls  of  his  classes,  and  has  given 
them  impulses  and  honorable  prejudices  that  are 
the  surest  sources  of  permanent  and  worthy  refine- 
ment. We  may  venture  to  suggest  that  character 
is  of  even  greater  value  than  culture. 

A  no  less  important  result  of  historical  study 
is  the  training  which  pupils  receive  in  the  handling 
of  books.  History,  more  than  any  other  subject 
in  the  secondary  curriculum,  demands  for  effec- 
tive work  a  library  and  the  ability  to  use  it.  Skill 
in  extracting  knowledge  from  the  printed  page, 
or  in  thumbing  indexes  and  fingering  tables  of  con- 
tents, is  of  great  value  to  any  one  who  is  called 
upon  to  use  books.  The  inability  to  discover  what 
a  book  contains  or  where  information  is  to  be 
found  is  one  of  the  common  failings  of  the  un- 
schooled and  the  untrained  man.  Through  the 
study  of  history  this  facility  in  handling  material 
may  be  cultivated,  and  at  the  same  time  the  pupil 


26  Value  of  History 

may  be  introduced  to  good  literature  and  inspired 
with  a  love  for  reading  which  will  prove  a  priceless 
treasure  to  him.  In  this  latter  respect  the  study 
of  history  is  second  to  that  of  English  literature 
alone. 

With  these  results  of  historical  study  two  others 
of  decided  value  may  in  conclusion  be  briefly  men- 
tioned :  by  the  reading  of  good  books,  and  by  con- 
stant efforts  to  re-create  the  real  past  and  make 
it  live  again,  the  pupil's  imagination  is  at  once 
quickened,  strengthened,  and  disciplined ;  and  by 
means  of  the  ordinary  oral  recitation,  if  properly 
conducted,  he  may  be  taught  to  express  himself  in 
well-chosen  words.  In  the  study  of  foreign  lan- 
guage, he  learns  words  and  sees  distinctions  in 
their  meanings ;  in  the  study  of  science,  he  learns 
to  speak  with  technical  exactness  and  care  ;  in  the 
study  of  history,  while  he  must  speak  truthfully 
and  accurately,  he  must  seek  to  find  apt  words  of 
his  own  with  which  to  describe  past  conditions  and 
to  clothe  his  ideas,  in  a  broad  field  of  work  which 
has  no  technical  method  of  expression  and  no 
peculiar  phraseology. 


Continuity    of    Historical    Study 
and  the  Relation  of  History  to 

other  Subjects 

/ 

WE  have  no  intention  of  framing  a  secondary- 
school  course,  in  which  each  study  shall  be  care- 
fully related  in  time  and  space  with  every  other ; 
such  a  process  is,  for  the  present  at  least,  a  task 
for  each  superintendent  or  principal  in  the  conduct 
of  his  own  work.  Certain  suggestions,  however, 
are  pertinent,  and  may  be  helpful. 

We  believe  that,  whenever  possible,  history 
should  be  a  continuous  study.  In  some  schools  it 
is  now  given  in  three  successive  years ;  in  others 
it  is  offered  in  each  of  the  four  years  of  at  least 
one  course.  Some  practical  teachers,  impressed 
with  this  need  of  continuity,  and  feeling  unable  to 
give  more  time  to  the  work,  have  thought  it  wise 
to  give  the  subject  in  periods  of  only  two  recita- 
tions per  week  for  one  year  or  more ;  and  such  a 
plan  may  prove  desirable  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
necting two  years  in  which  the  work  is  given  four 
or  five  times  per  week,  or  for  the  purpose  of 

27 


28  Relations  of  History 

extending  the  course.  Probably  two  periods  a 
week,  however,  will  seem  altogether  impracticable 
to  the  great  majority  of  teachers,  and  we  do  not 
recommend  that  this  step  be  taken  when  the  cir- 
cumstances allow  more  substantial  work.  A  prac- 
tical working  programme  in  one  of  the  very  best 
western  schools  presents  the  following  course :  — 

7th  grade,  American  History 4  periods. 

8th  grade,  American  History 2  periods. 

gth  grade  (ist  year  of  high  school),  Greek 

and  Roman  History 3  periods. 

loth  grade,  English  History 3  periods. 

nth  grade,  Institutional  History     ....  2  periods. 

1 2th  grade,  American  History 2  periods. 

Another  school  of  high  grade,  where  effective 
work  is  done,  gives  history  in  three  periods  per 
week  for  two  years,  and  in  five  periods  per  week 
for  two  more  years,  viz.  :  — 

1st  year  of  high  school,  Oriental,  Greek, 

and  Roman  History 3  times. 

2d  year,  Mediaeval  and  Modern  European 

History 3  times. 

3d  year,  English  History 5  times. 

4th  year,  American  History,  Economics, 

and  Civics 5  times. 

In  both  of  these  schools  some  of  the  historical 
work  is  optional  or  elective,  other  parts  are  re- 


Continuity  29 

quired.  These  courses  are  given  here  simply  to 
show  how  a  long,  continuous  course  may  be 
arranged,  where  the  circumstances  make  it  inad- 
visable to  give  work  four  or  five  times  per  week 
for  four  years.  We  do  not  recommend  courses  in 
which  the  study  comes  twice  a  week,  but  only  say 
that  in  some  instances  they  may  prove  advisable 
as  a  means  of  keeping  the  parts  of  the  course  in 
connection.  We  cannot  see  our  way  clear  to  pro- 
posing the  acceptance  of  a  two-hour  course  in  his- 
tory for  entrance  to  college,  if  units  are  counted 
or  definite  requirements  are  laid  down. 

A  secondary-school  course  in  which  there  are 
many  distinct  subjects  may  furnish  to  the  pupil 
only  bits  of  information,  and  not  give  the  discipline 
resulting  from  a  prolonged  and  continuous  appli- 
cation to  one  subject,  which  is  gradually  unfolded 
as  the  pupil's  mind  and  powers  are  developed.  A 
course  without  unity  may  be  distracting,  and  not 
educating  in  the  original  and  best  sense  of  the 
word.  At  least  in  some  courses  of  the  high  school 
or  academy,  history  is  the  best  subject  to  give 
unity,  continuity,  and  strength.  Where  a  foreign 
language  is  pursued  for  four  consecutive  years,  it 
serves  this  purpose ;  but  in  other  cases  it  is  doubt- 
ful whether  anything  can  do  the  work  so  well  as 
history.  Even  science  has  so  many  branches  and 
distinct  divisions,  —  at  all  events,  as  it  is  customarily 


30  Relations  of  History 

taught, — that  it  does  not  seem  to  be  a  continuous 
subject.  Doubtless  there  are  relationships  between 
physiology,  chemistry,  physics,  botany,  and  physi- 
cal geography,  and  of  course  the  methods  of  work 
in  all  of  them  are  similar ;  but  to  treat  science  as 
one  subject,  so  that  it  may  give  opportunity  for 
continuous  development  of  the  pupil,  and  for  a 
gradual  unfolding  of  the  problems  of  a  single  field 
of  human  study,  seems  to  us  to  present  many  al- 
most insurmountable  difficulties.  A  committee  of 
historical  students  may  be  pardoned  therefore  for 
thinking  that  history  furnishes  a  better  instrument 
than  science  for  such  purposes.  The  history  of  the 
human  race  is  one  subject ;  and  a  course  of  four 
years  can  be  so  arranged  as  to  make  the  study  a 
continually  developing  and  enlarging  one,  as  the 
needs  and  capacities  of  the  pupil  are  developed 
and  enlarged. 

History  should  not  be  set  at  one  side,  as  if  it 
had  no  relation  with  other  subjects  in  the  sec- 
ondary course.  Ideal  conditions  will  prevail  when 
the  teachers  in  one  field  of  work  are  able  to  take 
wise  advantage  of  what  their  pupils  are  doing  in 
another ;  when  the  teacher  of  Latin  or  Greek  will 
call  the  attention  of  his  pupils,  as  they  read  Caesar 
or  Xenophon,  to  the  facts  which  they  have  learned 
in  their  history  classes;  when  the  teachers  of 
French  and  German  and  English  will  do  the  same ; 


Unity  31 

when  the  teacher  of  physical  geography  will  re- 
member that  the  earth  is  man's  dwelling-place, 
or  more  properly  his  growing-place,  and  will  be 
able  to  relate  the  mountains,  seas,  and  tides  of 
which  he  speaks  with  the  growth  and  progress 
of  men ;  when  he  will  remember  that  Marco  Polo 
and  Henry  the  Navigator  and  Meriwether  Lewis 
were  unfolding  geography  and  making  history,  and 
that  Cape  Verde  not  only  juts  out  into  the  Atlantic, 
but  stands  forth  as  a  promontory  in  human  his- 
tory. Is  the  time  far  distant  when  the  march  of 
the  Ten  Thousand  will  be  looked  upon  not  merely 
as  a  procession  of  optative  moods  and  conditional 
clauses,  but  as  an  account  of  the  great  victory  won 
by  Greek  skill,  discipline,  and  intelligence  over 
the  helplessness  of  Oriental  confusion  ?  And  will 
Caesar  long  be  taught  only  as  a  compound  of 
ablative  absolutes  and  indirect  discourses,  rather 
than  as  a  story,  told  by  one  of  history's  greatest 
men,  of  how  our  Teutonic  forefathers  were  brought 
face  to  face  with  Roman  power,  and  how  the  peo- 
ples of  Gaul  were  subjected  to  the  art  and  the 
arms  of  Rome,  and  made  to  pass  under  the  yoke 
of  bondage  to  southern  civilization  and  southern 
law  ?  The  teacher  of  history,  if  he  knows  the 
foreign  languages  which  his  pupils  are  studying, 
may  connect  the  words  they  have  learned  with 
concrete  things;  and  he  may,  above  all,  help  to 


32  Relations  of  History 

give  the  young  people  who  are  trying  to  master  a 
foreign  tongue,  some  appreciation  of  the  tone, 
temper,  and  spirit  of  the  people,  without  which  a 
language  seems  void  and  characterless. 

History  has  a  central  position  among  the  sub- 
jects of  the  curriculum.  Like  literature,  it  deals 
with  man,  and  appeals  to  the  sympathy,  the  imag- 
ination, and  the  emotional  nature  of  the  pupils. 
Like  natural  science,  it  employs  methods  of  care- 
ful and  unprejudiced  investigation.  It  belongs  to 
the  humanities,  for  its  essential  purpose  is  to  dis- 
close human  life ;  but  it  also  searches  for  data, 
groups  them,  and  builds  generalizations  from  them. 
Though  it  may  not  be  a  science  itself,  its  methods 
are  similar  to  scientific  methods,  and  are  valuable 
in  inculcating  in  the  pupil  a  regard  for  accuracy 
and  a  reverence  for  truth.  It  corrects  the  formal- 
istic  bias  of  language,  by  bringing  the  pupil  into 
sympathetic  contact  with  actualities  and  with  the 
mind  of  man  as  it  has  reacted  on  his  environment. 
It  gives  breadth,  outlook,  and  human  interest, 
which  are  not  easily  developed  by  the  study  of 
natural  phenomena.  Thus,  as  a  theoretical  propo- 
sition, at  least,  the  assertion  that  the  story  of  life 
and  the  onward  movement  of  men,  not  their  lan- 
guage or  their  physical  environment,  should  form 
the  centre  of  a  liberal  course,  would  seem  to  leave 
little  ground  for  argument. 


A  Central  Subject  33 

We  may  add  to  all  these  considerations  the  fact 
that  even  in  the  natural  sciences,  as  well  as  in  other 
subjects,  the  historical  method  is  not  seldom  used 
by  advanced  scholars  and  thinkers.  The  scholarly 
scientific  investigator  knows  from  careful  study  the 
development  of  his  subject;  he  sees  the  successes 
and  the  failures  of  the  past,  and  recognizes  the 
lasting  contributions  that  have  from  time  to  time 
been  made  in  his  field  of  investigation ;  he  often 
studies  the  civilization  that  gave  birth  to  bygone 
and  obsolete  theories,  and  comes  thus  to  a  knowl- 
edge of  his  department  of  work  as  a  growing  and 
developing  department.  So,  too,  the  advanced  lin- 
guistic scholar  is  frequently  engaged,  not  so  much 
in  the  study  of  language,  as  in  the  examination  of 
successive  intellectual  movements  which  have  found 
expression  in  literature.  This  practice  of  linking 
the  present  with  the  past,  of  watching  progress  and 
studying  change,  has  become  one  of  the  marked 
characteristics  of  modern  learning ;  and  it  indi- 
cates that  history,  in  the  broad  field  of  human 
affairs,  is  a  subject  which  is  contributory  to  others, 
is  indeed  a  part  of  them,  and  occupies  a  central 
position  among  them. 


Four  Years'  Course,  consisting  of 
Four   Blocks  or   Periods 

As  a  thorough  and  systematic  course  of  study, 
we  recommend  four  years  of  work,  beginning  with 
ancient  history  and  ending  with  American  history. 
For  these  four  years  we  propose  the  division  of 
the  general  field  into  four  blocks  or  periods,  and 
recommend  that  they  be  studied  in  the  order  in 
which  they  are  here  set  down,  which  in  large 
measure  accords  with  the  natural  order  of  events, 
and  shows  the  sequence  of  historical  facts :  — 

(1)  Ancient  History,  with  special  reference  to 
Greek  and   Roman  history,  but  including  also  a 
short  introductory  study  of  the  more  ancient  na- 
tions.    This  period  should  also  embrace  the  early 
Middle  Ages,  and  should  close  with  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  (800),  or  with 
the  death  of  Charlemagne  (814),  or  with  the  treaty 
of  Verdun  (843). 

(2)  Mediaeval  and   Modern   European   History, 
from  the  close  of  the  first  period  to  the  present 
time. 

34 


The  Four  Fields  35 

(3)  English  History. 

(4)  American  History  and  Civil  Government. 
No  one  of  these  fields  can  be  omitted  without 

leaving  serious  lacuna  in  the  pupil's  knowledge  of 
history.  Each  department  has  its  special  value 
and  teaches  its  special  lesson ;  above  all,  the  study 
of  the  whole  field  gives  a  meaning  to  each  portion 
that  it  cannot  have  by  itself.  Greek  and  Roman 
civilization  contributed  so  much  to  the  world, — 
the  work  which  these  nations  accomplished,  the 
thoughts  which  they  brought  forth,  the  ideas 
which  they  embodied,  form  so  large  a  part  of  the 
past,  —  that  in  any  systematic  course  their  history 
must  be  studied.  The  student  of  modern  politics 
cannot  afford  to  be  ignorant  of  the  problems,  the 
strivings,  the  failures,  of  the  republics  and  democ- 
racies of  the  ancient  world.  We  speak  of  these 
nations  as  belonging  to  antiquity,  but  we  have  much 
of  them  with  us  to-day.  The  law  of  Rome  has  not 
gone ;  the  highest  thought  of  Greece  is  eternal. 

We  might  justly  insist  that  mediaeval  history  is 
worthy  of  a  place  in  the  school  programme  for  its 
own  sake,  recounting  as  it  does  the  development 
of  the  papacy  and  the  Church,  the  establishment 
of  feudalism,  the  foundation  of  modern  states,  the 
Renaissance,  and  the  beginning  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. But,  if  for  no  other  reason,  the  history  of 
the  Middle  Ages  deserves  study  because  without 


36  Four  Years'  Course 

it  Greece  and  Rome  are  isolated  and  seem  to  dwell 
in  a  world  apart.  On  the  other  hand,  the  char- 
acter of  the  forces  of  modern  times  cannot  be 
understood  by  one  who  examines  them  without 
reference  to  their  mediaeval  origins. 

Nor  will  any  one  seriously  maintain  in  these 
latter  days,  when  men  are  studying  world  move- 
ments,—  when,  as  we  are  told,  America  has  become 
a  world  power, — that  the  intelligent  citizen  has  no 
concern  with  the  chief  events  and  leading  tenden- 
cies of  the  last  four  centuries  of  European  history 
Indeed,  it  is  especially  desirable  that  American 
pupils  should  learn  something  of  European  history, 
since,  by  seeing  the  history  of  their  own  country 
in  its  proper  perspective,  they  may  appreciate  its 
meaning,  and  may  be  relieved  of  a  temptation  to 
a  narrow  intolerance,  which  resembles  patriotism 
only  as  bigotry  resembles  faith. 

Furthermore,  English  history  until  1776  is  our 
history ;  Edward  I.  and  Pym,  Hampden  and  Will- 
iam Pitt,  belong  to  our  past  and  helped  to  make  us 
what  we  are.  Any  argument  in  favor  of  Ameri- 
can history,  therefore,  holds  almost  equally  true 
for  the  study  of  English  history.  A  realization 
of  present  duties,  a  comprehension  of  present  re- 
sponsibilities, an  appreciation  of  present  oppor- 
tunities, cannot  better  be  inculcated  than  by  a 
study  of  the  centuries  in  which  Englishmen  were 


Chronological  Sequence         37 

struggling  for  representation,  free  speech,  and  due 
process  of  law. 

The  orderly  chronological  course  which  we  here 
advocate  has  its  marked  advantages,  but  it  should 
be  so  arranged  that  the  pupil  will  do  more  than 
follow  the  main  facts  as  he  traces  them  from  the 
earliest  times  to  the  present.  The  work  must  be 
so  developed  and  widened,  as  time  goes  on,  that 
in  the  later  years  the  pupil  will  be  dealing  with 
broader  and  deeper  problems  than  in  the  early 
years,  and  will  be  making  use  of  the  skill  and 
scholarly  sense  that  have  been  awakened  and 
called  into  action  by  previous  training.  By  a 
course  of  this  sort,  pupils  will  obtain  a  conspectus 
of  history  which  is  fairly  complete  and  satisfac- 
tory, will  follow  the  forward  march  of  events,  and 
will  come  to  see  the  present  as  a  product  of  the 
past;  while  the  teacher,  at  the  same  time,  will 
have  opportunity  to  unfold  the  problems  and  diffi- 
culties of  historical  study. 

The  desirability  of  arranging  historical  fields  of 
work  in  their  natural  chronological  order  will  prob- 
ably appeal  to  every  one,  and  need  not  be  dwelt 
upon.  Some  persons,  however,  may  object  to  the 
arrangement  as  unwise,  in  the  light  of  other  con- 
siderations. It  may  be  contended  that  pupils 
should  pass  "  from  the  known  to  the  unknown," 
from  the  familiar  to  the  unfamiliar  and  strange. 


38  Four  Years'  Course 

This  precept  we  do  not  care  formally  to  accept  or 
to  reject;  but  it  will  be  remembered,  that  in  all 
primary  and  grammar  schools  some  historical  work 
is  given,  and  that  we  can  take  for  granted,  proba- 
bly, that  all  pupils  know  something  of  Ameri- 
can history,  and  perhaps  of  other  history  in  ad- 
dition. As  a  matter  of  fact,  therefore,  we  are  not 
running  counter  to  the  doctrine  above  referred  to, 
or  violating  the  law  of  apperception. 

A  like  objection  may  be  met  with  a  similar 
answer.  American  history,  some  will  say,  should 
come  the  first  year  in  the  high  school,  because 
many  pupils  leave  school  before  the  later  years. 
But  this  objection  proves  too  much,  for  a  large 
percentage  of  boys  and  girls  do  not  enter  the  high 
school  at  all.  American  history  should  therefore 
be  given  in  the  grammar  school.  In  fact,  it  is 
given  in  the  eighth  and  lower  grades  in  probably 
the  vast  majority  of  schools ;  to  repeat  the  course 
therefore  in  the  first  year  of  the  secondary  course 
is  almost  a  waste  of  time,  inasmuch  as  any  marked 
development  in  the  method  of  treatment  is  im- 
possible. On  the  other  hand,  by  putting  the  study 
late  in  the  course,  the  pupil  can  work  along  new 
lines  and  attack  new  problems;  the  development 
of  American  institutions  can  be  studied ;  new  and 
more  difficult  books  can  be  read,  and  more  ad- 
vanced methods  used. 


Order  of  Fields  39 

Some  teachers,  believing  that  American  history 
is  essential  in  every  course,  will  object  to  the  cur- 
riculum here  suggested,  on  the  ground  that  the 
last  year  is  already  overcrowded,  and  that  we  are 
asking  the  impossible  when  we  suggest  that  the 
study  be  placed  in  that  year.  In  any  argument 
on  such  a  question,  history  is  at  a  disadvantage, 
because  other  subjects  have  from  time  immemorial 
been  considered  first,  while  history  has  been  treated 
as  a  poor  and  needy  relative :  other  subjects  have 
their  places,  and  claim  at  once  nine  full  points  in 
law.  If  it  is  more  important  that  pupils  should 
have  knowledge  of  chemistry,  solid  geometry, 
physics,  Greek,  English  literature,  Latin,  and  what 
not,  than  a  knowledge  of  the  essentials  of  the  po- 
litical and  social  life  about  them,  of  the  nature  and 
origin  of  the  federal  Constitution,  of  their  duties 
and  rights  as  citizens,  and  of  the  fundamental 
ideas  for  which  their  country  stands,  then  of 
course  American  history  need  not  enter  into  the 
contest  at  all.  In  making  these  recommendations, 
however,  we  are  not  acting  upon  merely  theoret- 
ical grounds  :  an  investigation  of  existing  condi- 
tions leads  us  to  believe  that  there  is  a  strong 
tendency  to  place  American  history  in  the  last 
year  of  the  course. 

It  will  be  argued,  again,  that  Greek  and  Roman 
history  is  too  difficult  for  the  first  year.  To  this 


40  Four  Years'  Course 

we  may  answer,  ( i )  that  a  number  of  excellent  and 
successful  teachers  give  the  subject  in  the  first 
year,  and  (2)  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  fathom  all 
the  mysteries  of  the  Athenian  Constitution,  or  to 
penetrate  the  innermost  secrets  of  Roman  imperi- 
alism. It  is  not  impossible  to  know  the  main  out- 
lines of  Greek  and  Roman  history  and  to  see  the 
main  features  of  Greek  and  Roman  life.  If  Caesar, 
a  great  source  of  Roman  history,  can  be  studied  in 
the  original  in  the  tenth  grade,  with  all  the  sup- 
plementary information  on  military  and  historical 
matters  which  recent  editors  present,  cannot  sec- 
ondary material  in  the  vernacular  be  studied  in  the 
ninth  ?  While  we  do  not  think  that  Greek  and 
Roman  history  should  be  treated  as  a  handmaiden 
of  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages  (to  treat  the 
subjects  thus  is  to  invert  the  natural  relationship), 
we  suggest  that  a  course  in  ancient  history  in  the 
first  year  will  serve  to  give  life  and  meaning  to  all 
the  work  in  the  classic  tongues :  the  idea  may 
come  home  to  the  pupil  that  Caesar  and  Cicero  were 
real  living,  thinking,  acting  men,  and  not  imagi- 
nary creatures  begotten  by  the  brains  of  modern 
grammar-mongers  to  vex  the  soul  of  the  schoolboy. 
If  this  basis  of  fact  is  in  the  pupil's  mind,  the  clas- 
sical teacher  can  amplify  it  in  the  later  years  of 
the  high-school  course,  and  can  with  far  greater 
assurance  use  the  language  that  he  is  teaching  as 


Not  too  difficult  41 

a  medium  for  bringing  his  pupils  into  contact  with 
the  thoughts  and  moving  sentiments  of  antiquity. 

Some  one  may  object  that  mediaeval  and  modern 
European  history  is  too  difficult  for  the  tenth 
grade,  and  that  other  subjects  should  come  at  that 
time.  The  answer  to  such  objection  is,  of  course, 
that  any  other  subject  is  too  difficult  if  taught 
in  its  height  and  depth  and  breadth,  but  that  the 
cardinal  facts  of  European  history  can  be  under- 
stood, interesting  and  intelligible  books  can  be  read, 
the  significant  lessons  can  be  learned.  How  many 
boys,  when  they  are  sixteen  years  old,  cannot 
understand  "  The  Scottish  Chiefs,"  "  The  Three 
Musketeers,"  "  Twenty  Years  After,"  "  Ivanhoe," 
"  The  Talisman,"  "  With  Fire  and  Sword  "  ?  And 
is  the  simple,  truthful  historic  tale  of  border  con- 
flict, the  life  and  purposes  of  Richelieu,  the  death 
of  Charles  I.,  the  career  of  Richard  the  Lion- 
hearted,  the  character  of  Saladin,  the  horrible 
barbarism  of  Tartar  hordes,  harder  to  be  under- 
stood than  the  plot  of  an  elaborate  historical  novel 
dealing  with  the  same  facts  ?  Is  truth  necessarily 
more  difficult,  as  well  as  stranger,  than  fiction  ? 
But  the  conclusive  answer  to  this  objection  is  the 
fact  that  European  history  in  its  most  difficult 
form,  "  general  history,"  is  now  taught  in  the 
second  year  in  the  greater  part  of  the  schools 
which  offer  the  subject. 


42  Four  Years'  Course 

The  committee  may  be  criticised  for  outlining  a 
four  years'  course  at  all,  on  the  ground  that  no 
schools  can  devote  so  much  time  to  history.  This 
criticism  is  so  important  that  the  reasons  which 
influenced  us  to  take  this  action  should  be  given 
seriatim,  (i)  Some  schools  do  offer  history  in 
every  year  of  the  high  school,  either  as  a  required 
or  as  an  optional  study;  and  the  delineation  of 
what  seems  to  us  a  thorough  and  systematic  regime 
may  be  of  service  to  these  schools,  and  to  all 
others  that  desire  to  devote  considerable  time  and 
energy  to  the  subject.  (2)  If  some  schools  can- 
not give  all  that  is  here  proposed,  that  fact  pre- 
sents no  reason  why  an  adequate  course  should 
not  be  outlined.  We  are  not  seeking  to  induce 
schools  to  give  history  a  great  amount  of  attention 
at  the  expense  of  other  subjects  ;  but  a  course 
altogether  complete  and  adequate  needs  to  be  out- 
lined before  one  can  rightly  discuss  the  availability 
of  anything  else.  (3)  An  approach  to  an  ideal 
course,  in  order  of  subjects,  method,  treatment, 
and  time,  is  better  than  one  that  is  constructed 
without  any  reference  to  the  best  and  most  sym- 
metrical system.  (4)  As  a  general  rule,  definite 
parts  of  the  plan  which  we  here  outline  may  be 
taken  as  a  working  scheme.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  draw  up,  on  an  entirely  new  theory,  a  briefer 
curriculum  for  schools  that  cannot  take  the  whole 


Question  of  Time  43 

of  what  we  here  recommend :  the  simplest  and 
wisest  plan  under  such  circumstances  is  to  omit 
one  or  more  of  the  blocks  or  periods  into  which 
we  have  divided  the  general  field. 

If  only  three  years  can  be  devoted  to  historical 
work,  three  of  the  periods  outlined  above  may  be 
chosen,  and  one  omitted ;  such  omission  seems  to 
us  to  be  better  than  any  condensation  of  the  whole. 
But  if  any  teacher  desires  to  compress  two  of  the 
periods  into  a  single  year's  work,  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing plans  may  be  wisely  adopted,  (i)  Combine 
English  and  American  history  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  more  important  principles  wrought  out  in 
English  history,  and  the  main  facts  of  English 
expansion,  will  be  taught  in  connection  with 
American  colonial  and  later  political  history. 
(2)  Treat  English  history  in  such  a  way  as  to 
include  the  most  important  elements  of  mediaeval 
and  modern  European  history. 


Why  no  Short  Course  in  General 
History  is   Recommended 

FROM  the  foregoing  remarks,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  committee  believes  that  history  should  be 
given  in  four  consecutive  years  in  the  secondary 
school,  and  that  the  study  should  be  developed  in 
an  orderly  fashion,  with  reasonable  regard  for 
chronological  sequence  ;  in  other  words,  that  four 
years  should  be  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  world's 
history,  giving  the  pupil  some  knowledge  of  the 
progress  of  the  race,  enabling  him  to  survey  a 
broad  field  and  to  see  the  main  acts  in  the  histor- 
ical drama.  While,  of  course,  three  years  for  such 
study  are  better  than  two,  as  two  are  better  than 
one,  a  careful  consideration  of  the  problem  in  all 
its  aspects  has  led  us  to  the  conclusion  that  we 
cannot  strongly  recommend,  as  altogether  ade- 
quate, courses  covering  the  whole  field  in  less  than 
four  years. 

We  do  not  recommend  a  short  course  in  general 
history,  because  such  a  course  necessitates  one  of 
two  modes  of  treatment,  neither  of  which  is  sound 

44 


No  Short  Course  45 

and  reasonable.  By  one  method,  energy  is  devoted 
to  the  dreary,  and  perhaps  profitless,  task  of  mem- 
orizing facts,  dates,  names  of  kings  and  queens, 
and  the  rise  and  fall  of  dynasties ;  there  is  no 
opportunity  to  see  how  facts  arose  or  what  they 
effected,  or  to  study  the  material  properly,  or  to  see 
the  events  in  simple  form  as  one  followed  upon 
another,  or  to  become  acquainted  with  the  histori- 
cal method  of  handling  definite  concrete  facts 
and  drawing  inferences  from  them.  The  pupil  is 
not  introduced  to  the  first  principles  of  historical 
thinking;  he  is  not  brought  into  sympathy  with 
men  and  ideas,  or  led  to  see  the  play  of  human 
forces,  or  given  such  a  real  knowledge  of  past  times 
and  conditions  that  he  can  realize  that  history  has 
to  do  with  life,  with  the  thoughts,  aspirations, 
and  struggles  of  men.  By  the  second  method, 
pupils  are  led  to  deal  with  large  and  general 
ideas  which  are  often  quite  beyond  their  com- 
prehension, ideas  which  are  general  inferences 
drawn  by  the  learned  historian  from  a  well- 
stored  treasure-house  of  definite  data ;  they  are 
taught  to  accept  unquestioningly  broad  general- 
izations, the  foundations  of  which  they  cannot 
possibly  examine, —  as  they  must  do  if  they  are  to 
know  how  the  historical  student  builds  his  infer- 
ences, or  how  one  gains  knowledge  of  the  general 
truths  of  history.  The  first  method  is  apt  to  heap 


46  General  History 

meaningless  data  together :  facts  crowd  one  upon 
another ;  there  is  no  moving  drama,  but  at  the 
very  best,  perhaps,  a  series  of  kaleidoscopic  pic- 
tures, in  which  the  figures  are  arranged  with  seem- 
ing arbitrariness.  If  the  second  alternative  be 
followed,  all  is  order  and  system ;  the  pawns  of 
the  great  game  are  folks  and  nations ;  the  more 
effective  chessmen  are  world-moving  ideas.  The 
experienced  college  teacher  knows  full  well  that 
students  entering  upon  historical  work  will  learn 
facts  without  seeing  relationships;  that  "tend- 
ency" is  a  word  of  unknown  dimensions;  and  that 
his  first  task  is  to  lead  his  pupils  to  see  how 
definite  facts  may  be  grouped  into  general  facts, 
and  how  one  condition  of  things  led  to  another, 
until  they  come  to  a  realizing  sense  of  the  fact 
that  history  deals  with  dynamics,  not  statics,  and 
that  drifts,  tendencies,  and  movements  are  to  be 
searched  for  by  the  proper  interpretation  of  definite 
data,  and  the  proper  correlation  of  definite  deeds 
and  acts,  with  special  reference  to  chronological 
sequence.  If  college  students  must  thus  be  led  to 
the  comprehension  of  historical  forces  and  general 
ideas,  what  hope  is  there  that  a  general  history, 
dealing  only  with  tendencies,  will  be  adapted  to 
high-school  needs  ? 

But  while  we  do  not  think  that  a  secondary- 
school  pupil  can  be  brought  to  handle  large  gen- 


Practical  Basis  47 

eralizations,  we  do  believe  that,  if  the  time  devoted 
to  a  period  of  history  be  sufficiently  long  to  enable 
him  to  deal  with  the  acts  of  individual  men  and  to 
see  their  work,  he  can  be  taught  to  group  his  facts ; 
and  that  a  power  of  analysis  and  construction,  a 
capacity  for  seeing  relationships  and  causes,  an 
ability  to  grasp  a  general  situation  and  to  under- 
stand how  it  came  to  be,  can  be  developed  in  him ; 
and  that  he  can  be  brought  to  see  that  for  the 
historian  nothing  is,  but  everything  is  becoming. 
In  all  such  work,  however,  the  teacher  must  begin 
with  ideas  and  facts  that  are  not  altogether  unfa- 
miliar, —  with  the  activities,  the  impulses,  the  con- 
crete conduct  of  men.  We  do  not  mean  by  this 
that  constitutional  and  social  questions  cannot  be 
studied,  that  political  movements  cannot  be  inter- 
preted, or  that  the  biographical  system  suitable  for 
the  lower  grades  should  be  continued  through  the 
secondary  course.  On  the  contrary,  the  pupil 
should  be  led  to  general  facts  just  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible, and  should  be  induced  to  see  inferences  and 
the  meanings  of  acts  at  the  earliest  possible  mo- 
ment.1 He  must  not  only  have  a  well-articulated 

1  Let  it  be  remembered  that  the  course  in  history  in  the  high 
school  should  have  for  its  purpose  the  gradual  awakening  and 
developing  of  power.  Pupils  are  often  precipitated  into  general 
history,  and  asked  to  tax  their  powers  of  imagination  and  to  grasp 
movements,  when  they  are  entirely  without  experience  or  training. 


48  General  History 

skeleton  of  facts,  but  he  must  see  movement,  life, 
human  energy.  And  yet  the  average  pupil  will 
follow  the  course  of  Julius  Caesar  or  Augustus, 
when  he  cannot  understand  just  why  the  Roman 
Republic  was  overthrown  ;  he  can  know  much  of 
the  work  of  Constantine,  when  he  cannot  appreciate 
the  influence  of  Christianity  on  the  destinies  of 
Rome  and  the  world ;  he  can  see  what  Charlemagne 
did,  when  he  cannot  comprehend  the  nature  or  char- 
acter of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire ;  he  is  interested 
in  Danton  and  Mirabeau,  when  he  cannot  real- 
ize the  causes,  characteristics,  and  effects  of  the 
French  Revolution.  It  is  impossible  for  one  who 
knows  only  of  mayors,  constables,  and  county 
clerks,  to  reach  out  at  once  into  a  comprehension 
of  the  great  motive  forces  in  the  world's  history. 

We  ask,  then,  for  a  course  in  history  of  such 
length  that  the  pupil  may  get  a  broad  and  some- 
what comprehensive  view  of  the  general  field, 
without  having,  on  the  one  hand,  to  cram  his  mem- 
ory with  unrelated,  meaningless  facts,  or,  on  the 
other  hand,  to  struggle  with  generalizations  and 
philosophical  ideas  beyond  his  ken.  We  think 
that  a  course  covering  the  whole  field  of  history 
is  desirable,  because  it  gives  something  like  a 
proper  perspective  and  proportion ;  because  the 
history  of  man's  activities  is  one  subject,  and  the 
present  is  the  product  of  all  the  past;  because 


What  may  be  done  49 

such  a  study  broadens  the  mental  horizon  and 
gives  breadth  and  culture ;  because  it  is  desirable 
that  pupils  should  come  to  as  full  a  realization  as 
possible  of  their  present  surroundings,  by  seeing 
the  long  course  of  the  race  behind  them ;  because 
they  ought  to  have  a  general  conspectus  of  his- 
tory, in  order  that  more  particular  studies  of 
nations  or  of  periods  may  be  seen  in  something 
like  actual  relation  with  others.  We  think,  how- 
ever, that  quite  as  important  as  perspective  or 
proportion  are  method  and  training,  and  a  compre- 
hension of  the  essential  character  of  the  study. 

In  exact  accord  with  the  principles  here  advo- 
cated all  work  in  natural  science  is  now  conducted : 
a  pupil  is  taught  to  understand  how  the  simple 
laws  of  physics  or  chemistry  are  drawn  up ;  he 
is  induced  to  think  carefully  and  logically  about 
what  he  sees,  and  about  the  meaning  of  the  rules 
and  fundamental  truths  which  he  is  studying,  in 
order  that  he  may  learn  the  science  by  thinking  in 
it  rather  than  by  getting  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the 
field.  We  do  not  argue  that  secondary  pupils  can 
be  made  constructive  historians,  that  a  power  can 
be  bred  in  them  to  seize  for  themselves  essential 
data  and  weave  a  new  fabric,  that  the  mysteries 
of  the  historian's  art  can  be  disclosed  to  them,  or 
that  they  can  be  taught  to  play  upon  a  nation's 
stops  with  an  assured  and  cunning  hand.  But 


50  General  History 

every  study  has  its  methods,  its  characteristic 
thinking,  its  own  essential  purpose ;  and  the  pupil 
must  be  brought  into  some  sympathy  with  the  sub- 
ject. He  must  know  history  as  history,  just  as  he 
knows  science  as  science. 

Any  comparison  between  history  and  science  is 
apt  to  be  misleading.  The  method  of  the  one 
study,  for  purposes  of  instruction  at  least,  is  not 
the  method  of  the  other :  we  do  not  suppose  that 
Richelieu  or  William  the  Silent  can  be  treated 
with  any  sort  of  moral  reagent,  or  examined  as  a 
specimen  under  any  high-power  lens.  And  yet 
in  some  respects  we  may  learn  lessons  from 
methods  of  scientific  instruction.  The  modern 
teacher  of  botany  does  not  endeavor  to  have  his 
pupils  learn  a  long  list  of  classified  shrubs,  to 
know  all  the  families  and  species  by  heart,  or  to 
make  a  telling  synopsis  of  even  any  considerable 
section  of  the  world's  flora  ;  he  examines  a  more 
limited  field  with  care,  and  asks  the  students  to 
see  how  seeds  germinate  and  how  plants  grow, 
and  to  study  with  a  microscope  a  piece  of  wood- 
fibre  or  the  cross-section  of  a  seed.  This  he 
does  in  order  that  the  pupils  may  see  the  real 
subject,  may  know  botany  and  acquire  the  habit 
of  thinking  as  men  of  science  think ;  not,  let 
it  be  understood,  that  he  may  discover  new 
laws  of  floral  growth  or  develop  for  himself  a 


Compared  with  Science         51 

single  principle,  rule,  or  system  of  classification. 
And  so  in  history:  while  we  do  not  urge  that 
pupils  be  asked  to  extort  their  knowledge  from 
the  raw  material,  or  to  search  through  the  docu- 
ments to  find  the  data  which  learned  scholars  have 
already  found  for  them,  we  do  ask  that  the  old 
system  of  classification,  and  the  old  idea  that  one 
must  see  the  whole  field  before  he  studies  a  part 
of  it,  be  altogether  given  up,  if  an  effort  to  know 
the  outlines  of  the  whole  means  that  the  pupil  has 
not  sufficient  opportunity  to  study  history  as  his- 
tory, to  see  how  men  moved  and  acted,  to  know 
that  history  deals  with  the  sequence  of  events  in 
time.  To  insist  upon  a  general  comprehension  of 
the  world's  history  before  examining  a  part  with 
care,  would  be  quite  as  reasonable  as  to  ask  a 
pupil  to  study  the  circle  of  the  sciences  before  he 
analyzes  a  flower  or  works  an  air-pump. 

While  we  believe  that  pupils  can  advantageously 
use  the  sources,  chiefly  as  illustrative  matter,  we 
are  not  now  arguing  for  the  "  source  system  "  or 
insisting  that  they  should  be  trained  to  handle 
original  material.  Skill  in  finding  facts  in  docu- 
ments or  contemporary  narratives,  however  desira- 
ble that  may  be,  is  not  the  sole  end  of  historical 
instruction  anywhere,  and  above  all  in  the  second- 
ary schools.  Even  the  historian  is  doing  but  a 
small  part  of  his  work  when  he  is  mousing  through 


52  General  History 

his  material,  and  gathering  this  fact  and  another 
from  forgotten  corners.  One  of  his  most  impor- 
tant and  most  difficult  tasks  is  to  detect  the  real 
meaning  of  events,  and  so  to  put  his  well-tested 
data  together  that  their  proper  import  and  their 
actual  inter-relations  are  brought  to  view.  His- 
tory, we  say  again,  has  to  do  with  the  sequence 
of  events  in  time ;  and  what  we  contend  for  is  such 
a  course  in  history  as  will  enable  one  to  see  sequence 
and  movement, — the  words  are  not  synonymous; 
this  simple  essential  of  historical  work,  an  essential, 
however,  often  lost  sight  of  completely,  must  not 
be  neglected.  We  believe  that  the  pupil  should 
study  history,  and  not  something  else  under  the 
name  of  history,  —  neither  philosophy  on  the  one 
hand,  nor  the  art  of  historical  investigation  on 
the  other. 


How    the  Different   Blocks   or 
Periods  may  be  Treated 

WE  may  now  briefly  consider  each  one  of  the 
main  divisions  of  the  general  field,  and  discuss  the 
method  in  which  it  may  best  be  handled.  This 
portion  of  our  report  might  be  greatly  extended, 
but  we  wish  to  confine  ourselves  to  a  consideration 
of  general  propositions,  which  are  deemed  impor- 
tant because  they  have  to  do  with  the  essential 
character  and  purpose  of  the  study. 

I.   Ancient  History 

Greek  and  Roman  history  is  taught  in  a  large 
number  of  the  secondary  schools,  and  in  some 
schools  no  other  branch  of  history  is  offered.  This 
preference  is  explained  by  the  evolution  of  the 
curriculum  in  which  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages 
were  long  the  dominant  subjects,  Greek  and  Ro- 
man history  being  thrust  in  at  a  later  time  as 
ancillary  to  the  study  of  the  ancient  languages.  In 
some  schools  the  history  remains  a  subordinate  sub« 

S3 


54  Treatment 

ject,  coming  once  or  twice  a  week,  and,  even  then,  it 
is  often  in  the  hands  of  a  classical  instructor  who  is 
more  interested  in  linguistics  than  in  history  and 
has  had  no  training  in  historical  method.  The 
course  is  apt  to  be  confined  to  the  histories  of 
Greece  and  Rome ;  the  Orient  is  not  infrequently 
omitted ;  the  mediaeval  relations  of  Rome  are  usually 
ignored.  The  perspective  and  emphasis  within 
the  field  covered  have  been  determined  by  literary 
and  linguistic,  rather  than  by  historical,  considera- 
tions, with  the  result  that  the  chief  attention  is 
devoted  to  the  periods  when  great  writers  lived 
and  wrote.  Too  much  time,  for  example,  is  com- 
monly given  to  the  Peloponnesian  war,  while  the 
Hellenistic  period  is  neglected.  The  history  of 
the  early  Roman  Republic  is  dwelt  upon  at  the 
expense  of  the  Empire,  although  very  little  is 
known  of  the  early  times.  It  sometimes  seems 
as  if  the  ghost  of  Livy  were  with  us  yet. 

The  committee  thinks  that  the  time  has  come 
when  ancient  history  may  be  studied  independently 
as  an  interesting,  instructive,  and  valuable  part  of 
the  history  of  the  human  race.  Classical  pupils 
need  such  a  study,  not  to  support  their  classical 
work,  but  to  give  them  a  wider  and  deeper  know- 
ledge of  the  life,  thought,  and  character  of  the  an- 
cient world ;  and  non-classical  pupils  need  the  work 
still  more  than  the  classical,  for  in  this  study  they 


Ancient  History  55 

are  likely  to  find  their  only  opportunity  of  coming 
into  contact  with  ancient  ideas.  We  ask,  then, 
that  ancient  history  be  taught  as  history,  for  the 
same  purpose  that  any  other  branch  of  history  is 
taught, — in  order  that  pupils  may  learn  the  story 
of  human  achievement  and  be  trained  in  historical 
thinking. 

To  bring  out  the  value  of  ancient  history,  it  is 
especially  important  that  Greek  and  Roman  history 
should  not  be  isolated,  but  that  there  should  be 
some  reference  to  the  life  and  influence  of  other 
nations,  and  some  comprehension  of  the  wide  field, 
which  has  a  certain  unity  of  its  own.  There  should 
be  a  short  introductory  survey  of  Oriental  history, 
as  an  indispensable  background  for  a  study  of  the 
classical  peoples.  This  survey  must  be  brief,  and 
in  the  opinion  of  the  committee  should  not  exceed 
one-eighth  of  the  entire  time  devoted  to  ancient 
history.  It  should  aim  to  give  (a}  an  idea  of  the 
remoteness  of  these  Oriental  beginnings,  of  the 
length  and  reach  of  recorded  history  ;  (b)  a  definite 
knowledge  of  the  names,  location,  and  chronological 
succession  of  the  early  Oriental  nations  ;  (c)  the  dis- 
tinguishing features  of  their  civilizations,  as  con- 
cretely as  possible ;  (d)  the  recognizable  lines  of 
their  influence  on  later  times.  The  essential  factors 
in  this  period  may  perhaps  best  be  seen  by  con- 
centrating attention  first  on  the  kingdoms  of  the 


56  Treatment 

two  great  valleys,  —  that  of  the  Nile  and  that  of 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  —  and  by  bringing  in 
the  lesser  peoples  of  the  connecting  regions  as  the 
great  empires  spread  northward  and  meet.  Persia 
may  be  taken  up  afterward,  and  its  conquests  may 
serve  as  a  review  of  the  others. 

Although,  of  course,  Greek  history  should  in- 
clude a  short  study  of  early  times,  and  should  dis- 
close the  growth  of  Athens  and  Sparta  and  the 
characteristic  life  of  the  great  classical  period,  it 
should  not,  on  the  other  hand,  omit  an  account  of 
the  chief  events  of  the  Hellenistic  age,  but  should 
give  some  idea  of  the  conquests  of  Alexander,  of 
the  kingdoms  that  arose  out  of  them,  and  of  the 
spread  of  Greek  civilization  over  the  East,  so  im- 
portant in  relation  to  the  influence  of  Greece  upon 
later  times.  It  should  also  give  the  main  events 
in  the  later  history  of  Greece,  and  should  show 
the  connection  between  Greek  and  Roman  his- 
tory. Time  for  this  survey  may  well  be  saved 
by  omitting  the  details  of  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
which  crowd  so  many  text-books.  This  period 
should  rather  be  used  largely  as  connective  tissue, 
to  hold  Greek  and  Roman  history  together ;  it 
should  be  approached  first  from  the  Greek  side, 
and  be  reviewed  afterward  in  connection  with  the 
Roman  conquest  of  the  East.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  show  the  overlapping  of  Greek  and  Ro- 


Ancient  History  57 

man  history  chronologically,  and  to  avoid  the  not 
uncommon  impression  among  pupils  that  Rome 
was  founded  after  the  destruction  of  Corinth. 

The  treatment  of  Roman  history  should  be  suf- 
ficiently full  to  correspond  to  its  importance.  Too 
much  time,  as  it  seems  to  the  committee,  is  often 
spent  upon  the  period  of  the  Republic,  especially 
on  the  early  years,  and  too  little  upon  that  of  the 
Empire.  Adequate  attention  is  not  always  paid  to 
the  development  of  Roman  power  and  the  expan- 
sion of  Roman  dominion.  Some  idea  should  be 
given  of  the  organization  of  the  world-state  and  of 
the  extension  of  Roman  civilization.  Recognizing 
fully  the  difficulty  of  this  period,  and  not  seeking 
to  force  upon  the  pupils  general  ideas  that  confuse 
them,  the  teacher  should  endeavor  to  make  them 
acquainted,  not  simply  with  emperors  and  praeto- 
rian guards,  but  with  the  wide  sway  of  Rome ; 
and  not  so  much  with  the  "  falling  "  of  Rome,  as 
with  the  impression  left  upon  western  Christen- 
dom by  the  spirit  and  character  of  the  eternal  city. 
This,  we  think,  can  be  done  by  the  careful  use  of 
concrete  facts  and  illustrations,  not  by  the  use 
of  philosophical  generalizations.  Probably  most 
of  us  remember  that  our  impressions  from  early 
study  were  that  Rome  really  gave  up  the  ghost 
with  the  accession  of  Augustus,  —  is  that  idea  due 
to  that  good  republican  Livy  again?  And  if  we 


58  Treatment 

studied  the  Empire  at  all,  we  wondered  why  it  took 
four  hundred  years  and  more  for  her  to  tread  all 
the  slippery  way  to  Avernus,  when  once  she  had 
entered  upon  the  road.  To  get  such  an  impres- 
sion is  to  lose  the  truth  of  Rome. 

The  continuation  of  ancient  history  into  the 
early  Middle  Ages  has  a  manifest  convenience  in 
a  programme  of  two  years'  work  in  European  his- 
tory. It  secures  an  equitable  adjustment  of  time, 
and  a  reasonable  distribution  of  emphasis  between 
the  earlier  and  later  periods.  If  the  pupil  stops  his 
historical  work  at  the  end  of  the  first  year,  it  is 
desirable  that  he  should  not  look  upon  classical 
history  as  a  thing  apart,  but  that  he  should  be 
brought  to  see  something  of  what  followed  the  so- 
called  "  Fall  "  of  the  western  Empire.  Moreover, 
it  is  difficult  to  find  a  logical  stopping-place  at  an 
earlier  date :  one  cannot  end  with  the  introduction 
of  Christianity,  or  with  the  Germanic  invasions, 
or  with  the  rise  of  Mohammedanism ;  and  to 
break  off  with  the  year  476  is  to  leave  the  pupil 
in  a  world  of  confusion,  —  the  invasions  only  be- 
gun, the  church  not  fully  organized,  the  Empire 
not  wholly  "fallen."  Hence,  from  motives  of 
clearness  alone,  there  is  a  gain  in  carrying  the 
pupil  on  to  an  age  of  comparative  order  and  sim- 
plicity, such  as  one  finds  in  the  time  of  Charle- 
magne. Further  study  of  the  Middle  Ages  then 


Mediaeval  and  Modern          59 

begins  with  the  dissolution  of  the  Prankish  Em- 
pire and  the  formation  of  new  states.1 

II.    Mediaeval  and  Modern  European  History 

This  field  covers  a  period  of  a  thousand  years, 
and  the  history  of  at  least  four  or  five  important 
nations ;  it  is  necessarily,  therefore,  a  matter  of  con- 
siderable difficulty  to  determine  the  best  method 
by  which  the  subject  may  be  handled.  Whether 
the  whole  field  be  covered  superficially,  or  only 
the  main  lines  be  treated,  it  is  highly  desira- 
ble that  some  unity  should  be  discovered  if  pos- 
sible, or  that  there  should  be  some  central  line 
with  which  events  or  movements  can  be  corre- 
lated. To  find  an  assured  principle  of  unity  is 
exceedingly  difficult,  perhaps  impossible;  and  it  is 
very  likely  that  writers  will  continue  to  disagree 
as  to  the  best  method  of  traversing  this  vast  area. 

One  way  to  get  unity  and  continuity  is  to  study 
general  movements  alone,  without  endeavoring  to 

1  Such  a  survey  of  the  beginnings  of  the  Middle  Ages  must 
needs  be  quite  brief,  and  should  be  confined  to  the  primary  fea- 
tures of  the  period, — to  the  Barbarian  invasions,  the  rise  of  the 
Christian  church  and  of  Mohammedan  civilization,  the  persistence 
of  the  empire  in  the  East,  and  the  growth  of  Prankish  power  to 
its  culmination  under  Charlemagne.  This  practice  of  combining 
ancient  and  mediaeval  history  has  been  followed  in  a  number  of 
schools,  and  the  results  have  been  satisfactory. 


60  Treatment 

follow  the  life  of  any  one  nation  ;  but  while  this 
method  is  possible  for  college  classes,  it  may  not 
be  found  feasible  for  secondary  schools,  where 
pupils  have  greater  difficulty  in  comprehending 
general  tendencies.  Still,  we  think  that  certain 
essential  characteristics  of  at  least  the  mediaeval 
period  may  perhaps  be  studied.  The  period 
extending  from  Charlemagne  to  the  Revival  of 
Learning  has  a  "strongly  marked  character, 
almost  a  personality  of  its  own"  ;  and  by  a  selec- 
tion of  proper  facts  some  of  the  main  character- 
istics may  be  brought  home  to  the  knowledge  of 
the  high-school  pupils.  The  teacher  or  text-writer 
who  attempts  this  method  must  naturally  proceed 
with  great  caution,  getting  general  ideas  before 
the  students  by  a  judicious  use  of  concrete  facts 
and  illustrations,  and  not  failing  to  give  some  of 
the  more  important  events  and  dates  that  mark  the 
period.  He  will  probably  find  that  the  most  char- 
acteristic feature  of  the  age  is  the  unbroken  dom- 
inance of  the  Roman  church,  and  should  there- 
fore bring  out  clearly  the  essential  features  of  its 
organization,  and  explain  the  methods  by  which 
it  exercised  control  in  all  departments  of  mediae- 
val life.  If  this  is  done,  as  it  can  and  should  be 
done,  with  care  and  impartiality,  the  pupil  will 
receive  a  valuable  lesson  in  historical  truthfulness 
and  objectivity,  at  the  same  time  that  he  comes 


Mediaeval  61 

to  appreciate  one  of  the  great  moving  forces  of 
European  history. 

This  method  of  treating  continental  history  can 
be  carried  throughout  the  Reformation  period  by 
remembering  that  while  that  period  marks  the 
end  of  the  Middle  Ages  it  also  forms  the  basis 
for  modern  European  history.  This  epoch  must 
therefore  be  taught  with  both  points  of  view  in 
mind.  The  main  aspects  of  the  time  must  be 
brought  broadly  before  the  pupil,  and  he  must 
be  led  to  see  that  the  sixteenth  century  is  a 
century  of  transition ;  that  the  old  order  has  been 
swept  away ;  that  religious,  political,  material, 
intellectual,  and  social  life  has  been  profoundly 
affected,  not  only  by  the  teachings  of  Luther  and 
Calvin,  but  by  the  development  of  the  printing- 
press,  the  use  of  gunpowder,  the  voyages  of  Ma- 
gellan and  Drake,  and  the  change  in  economic 
values.  The  wars  of  religion  mark  the  last  efforts 
to  reestablish  united  Christendom ;  and,  although 
the  treaty  of  Westphalia  (1648)  seems  well  within 
the  sphere  of  modern  history,  it  may  not  improp- 
erly be  selected  as  the  end  of  this  era  of  transition. 

From  the  close  of  this  period,  it  will  be  found 
very  difficult  to  treat  only  of  movements  of  a  gen- 
eral character  affecting  the  life  of  Europe.  There 
is  now  no  great  institution,  like  the  church,  which 
forms  the  centre  of  Christendom ;  the  different 


62  Treatment 

nations  no  longer  belong  to  a  system,  but  act  as 
independent  sovereigns ;  the  development  of  dis- 
tinct national  life  is  now  of  primary  concern  to  the 
historical  student.  But  even  in  modern  history, 
the  method  of  treating  epochs  of  international 
importance  can  be  used  to  some  extent.  In  order 
that  this  may  be  done,  it  will  be  necessary,  proba- 
bly, so  to  connect  movements  or  epochal  charac- 
teristics with  the  history  of  particular  nations  that 
the  separate  development  of  the  European  states 
may  be  discerned.  For  example,  the  period  from 
1648  to  1715  can  be  treated  as  the  age  of  Louis 
XIV. ;  while  the  history  of  the  seventeenth-century 
monarchy,  illustrated  by  the  attitude  and  the  admin- 
istration of  Louis,  is  brought  to  light,  the  history  of 
western  Europe  may  be  studied  in  its  relations  with 
France.  The  period  from  1715  to  1763  is  the  age 
of  colonial  expansion,  of  rivalry  between  France 
and  England  ;  and  it  can  be  studied  from  either 
England  or  France  as  a  point  of  view.  The  age 
of  Frederick  the  Great  (1740-1786)  brings  before 
us  not  only  the  rise  of  Prussia  and  the  significance 
of  that  great  fact,  but  the  theory  of  enlightened 
despotism,  of  which  Frederick  was  an  exponent, 
and  which  was  exemplified  by  the  work  of  Cath- 
erine of  Russia,  Joseph  II.,  and  other  enlightened 
monarchs  and  ministers.  For  the  period  of  the 
French  Revolution  and  the  Empire  (1789-1815), 


Modern  63 

France  again  may  be  taken  as  the  centre  from 
which  to  consider  the  international  relations  of 
European  states,  the  development  of  the  new  prin- 
ciples of  nationality,  the  sovereignty  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  the  liberty  of  the  individual.  From  1815 
to  1848  Metternich  may  be  regarded  as  the  cen- 
tral figure ;  the  reactionary  characteristics  of  this 
time  will  naturally  be  dwelt  upon,  but  the  growth 
of  new  principles  may  also  be  illustrated,  as  seen 
in  the  establishment  of  independence  in  Greece 
and  Belgium,  and  in  the  liberal  monarchy  of  Louis 
Philippe.  The  system  of  Metternich  broke  down 
in  1848,  and  from  that  time  to  1871  study  is  natu- 
rally directed  to  the  work  of  Cavour  and  Bis- 
marck, to  the  unification  of  Italy  and  Germany, 
and  to  topics  that  may  be  easily  considered  in  con- 
nection with  these  events.  In  attempting  to  give 
the  pupil  some  idea  of  modern  European  politics 
since  the  establishment  of  the  German  Empire,  it 
may  be  found  advisable  to  treat  Bismarck  as  the 
central  figure  down  to  1890,  and  the  Emperor 
William  II.  as  the  successor  of  Bismarck.  In 
this  connection,  the  extra-European  ambitions  and 
achievements  of  Germany,  since  1871,  will  serve 
to  bring  out  the  fact  that  the  history  of  the  great 
European  nations  is  now  not  only  the  history  of 
Europe,  but  the  history  of  Asia  and  Africa  as  well, 
In  some  such  manner  as  this  it  may  be  possible 


64  Treatment 

to  study  the  broad  field  of  European  history  with 
special  reference  to  movements  or  epochs.  The 
outline  is  not  given  here  as  a  proposal  for  a  hard 
and  fast  system,  but  rather  to  illustrate  the  main 
principle  for  which  we  are  contending  ;  namely, 
that  some  principle  of  unity  should  be  discovered 
which  will  allow  definite  concrete  treatment,  avoid- 
ing, on  the  one  hand,  philosophical  generalization, 
and,  on  the  other,  tangled  accounts  of  detailed 
events  which  are  made  meaningless  by  the  absence 
of  proper  connotation. 

Another  method  of  securing  unity  and  contin- 
uity is  to  select  the  history  of  one  nation,  prefera- 
bly that  of  France,  as  a  central  thread,  and  study 
the  development  of  its  life.  It  may  be  that  an 
understanding  of  the  chief  transitions  in  the  his- 
tory of  one  nation  for  a  thousand  years  is  all  that 
the  second-year  pupil  should  be  asked  to  acquire. 
But  probably  it  will  be  quite  possible  for  him 
to  acquire  more ;  the  Germanic  migrations,  the 
growth  of  the  church,  the  invasions  of  the  Sara- 
cens, the  establishment  of  the  Holy  Roman  Em- 
pire, feudalism,  the  crusades,  the  Renaissance,  the 
rise  of  national  monarchies,  the  religious  wars, 
the  French  Revolution  and  the  Napoleonic  wars, 
the  unification  of  Germany  and  Italy,  the  demo- 
cratic movements  of  the  present  century,  —  these 
and  other  important  topics  have  immediate  rela- 


Episodic  or  Central  65 

tion  to  French  history,  and  may  well  be  studied 
in  connection  with  it. 

This  method  of  treatment  has  been  followed 
satisfactorily  in  some  schools.  Many  teachers 
have  used  English  history  for  the  purpose  with 
some  success,  and  have  thus  given  to  their  pupils 
no  small  knowledge  of  what  went  on  upon  the 
continent.  England  however  does  not  serve  this 
purpose  so  well  as  France ;  we  speak  of  this  use  of 
English  history  simply  to  show  the  practicability 
of  the  plan.  Of  course  if  any  one  nation  is  chosen, 
the  student  is  apt  to  get  an  exalted  idea  of  the  part 
which  that  particular  nation  has  played ;  and  there 
is  danger,  too,  of  a  lack  of  proportion.  But  con- 
sistency, simplicity,  and  unity  are  more  essential 
than  general  comprehension ;  or,  it  might  more 
truly  be  said,  general  comprehension  and  appre- 
ciation of  proportions  are  almost  impossible  for 
boys  and  girls,  and,  if  simplicity  and  compactness 
are  wanting,  there  is  apt  to  be  no  grasp  of  funda- 
mentals at  all.  If  France  be  taken  as  a  centre, 
events  can  be  studied  in  sequence,  the  primary 
historical  way  of  looking  at  things  can  be  culti- 
vated, and  the  concrete  acts  of  men  can  be  exam- 
ined and  discussed. 

If  neither  of  the  methods  here  suggested  appeals 
to  the  teacher,  he  must  seemingly  do  one  of  two 
things :  he  must  endeavor  to  get  a  very  general 


66  Treatment 

view  of  the  field,  give  all  the  main  facts  and  dates, 
and  follow  the  histories  of  the  nations  in  parallel 
lines ;  or  he  must  omit  large  portions  of  the  his- 
torical field  altogether,  and  content  himself  with 
the  study  of  a  few  important  epochs.  By  either 
of  these  modes  of  treatment,  any  effort  to  unify  is 
in  large  measure  given  up.  The  first  way  is  not 
uncommonly  followed,  but  it  often  results,  as  the 
committee  thinks,  in  cramming  the  memory  with 
indigestible  facts  and  in  mental  confusion  ;  though 
an  occasional  effort  to  bind  the  parallel  lines  to- 
gether by  horizontal  lines  will  help  to  give  unity 
and  wholeness  to  the  structure,  or,  to  change  the 
figure,  an  occasional  view  of  a  cross-section  will 
have  a  like  effect.  The  second  method  is  adopted 
by  some  teachers,  and  they  could  with  difficulty  be 
convinced  that  it  is  not  the  best:  they  believe  that 
by  the  intensive  study  of  two  or  three  epochs  the 
best  educational  results  are  obtained.  The  Refor- 
mation, the  age  of  Louis  XIV.,  the  French  Revo- 
lution, and  the  nineteenth  century  might  be  selected 
as  characteristic  periods.  We  do  not,  however, 
urge  this  method  upon  the  schools,  or  insist  that 
it  is  the  proper  one.  We  know  that  it  has  been 
successfully  used,  and  believe  that  under  advan- 
tageous circumstances  it  will  be  likely  to  prove 
satisfactory ;  although  the  failure  to  give  a  general 
view  of  European  history  is  to  be  regretted. 


English  History  67 

III.    English  History 

English  history,  coming  in  the  third  year  of 
the  school  course,  and  completing  the  survey  of 
European  development,  is  exceedingly  important. 
Significant  as  is  the  history  of  the  English  nation  in 
itself,  the  study  may  be  made  doubly  useful  if  the 
work  is  so  conducted  that  it  serves  in  some  measure 
as  a  review  of  continental  history  and  as  a  prepa- 
ration for  American  history.  The  pupils  in  our 
schools,  as  we  have  already  suggested,  can  ill 
afford  to  lose  such  an  introduction  to  the  study  of 
the  history  and  institutions  of  the  United  States; 
for,  without  a  knowledge  of  how  the  English  peo- 
ple developed  and  English  principles  matured, 
they  can  have  slight  appreciation  of  what  Amer- 
ica means.  Even  the  Revolution,  for  example,  if 
studied  as  an  isolated  phenomenon,  is  bereft  of 
half  its  meaning,  to  say  the  least,  because  the 
movement  that  ended  in  the  separation  of  the  colo- 
nies from  the  mother  country  and  in  the  adoption 
of  the  Federal  Constitution,  began  long  before 
the  colonies  were  founded,  and  because  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  was  the  formal 
announcement  of  democratic  ideas  that  had  their 
tap-root  in  English  soil. 

We  believe  that  considerable,  if  not  the  chief, 
attention  should  be  paid  to  the  gradual  develop- 


68  Treatment 

ment  of  English  political  institutions.  These 
words  may  sound  forbidding,  but  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  the  reader  of  this  report  will  not  imagine  that 
we  think  of  plunging  the  pupil  into  Stubbs  or  Hal- 
lam.  We  mean  simply  that  the  main  features,  the 
fundamental  principles  and  practices  of  constitu- 
tional government  should  be  studied,  and  that  the 
steps  in  its  development  should  be  marked.  It  is 
not  impossible  to  know  the  leading  features  of  the 
work  of  William  I.  and  its  results,  the  principal 
reforms  of  Henry  II.,  the  chief  developments  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  the  actual  meanings  of 
Tudor  supremacy,  the  underlying  causes,  pur- 
poses, and  results  of  the  Puritan  Revolution,  the 
work  of  Pym  and  Eliot,  of  Robert  Walpole  or  of 
Earl  Grey.  One  might  almost  as  well  object  to 
mathematics  in  the  high  school  because  quaterni- 
ons or  the  integral  calculus  are  hard  and  abstruse, 
as  to  complain  of  the  difficulty  of  the  constitu- 
tional history  of  England  because,  when  studied 
profoundly,  it  is,  like  every  other  subject,  full  of 
perplexities.  The  treatment  must  be  simple, 
direct,  and  forcible,  and  its  supreme  object  must 
be  to  show  the  long  struggle  for  political  and  civil 
privileges,  and  the  gradual  growth  of  the  cardinal 
forms  and  salient  ideas  of  the  English  state.  One 
cannot  forget,  even  in  a  high-school  course,  that 
England  is  the  mother  of  modern  constitutional 


English  History  69 

government ;  that  by  the  force  of  example  she  has 
become  the  law-giver  of  the  nations. 

The  pupil  should  be  led  to  see  how  the  state 
grew  in  power,  how  the  government  developed, 
and  how  it  became  more  and  more  responsive  to 
the  popular  will  and  watchful  of  individual  inter- 
ests. But  he  ought  to  see  more  than  merely 
political  progress  :  he  can  be  made  to  see,  at  least 
to  some  small  extent,  how  the  life  of  men  broad- 
ened as  the  years  went  by,  and  can  note  some 
of  the  many  changes  in  habits  of  living  and  in  in- 
dustry. Such  a  reign  as  that  of  Elizabeth  would 
yield  but  little  of  its  meaning  if  the  student  should 
content  himself  with  the  hackneyed  phrase  of 
"  Tudor  absolutism  "  (but  half  true  at  the  best), 
and  did  not  see  the  social  and  industrial  move- 
ments, the  great  human  uprising,  "the  general 
awakening  of  national  life,  the  increase  of  wealth, 
of  refinement  and  leisure,"  in  that  age  when  the 
"  sphere  of  human  interest  was  widened  as  it  had 
never  been  widened  before  ....  by  the  revelation  of 
a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth."  The  wise  teacher 
will  not  neglect  the  collateral  study  of  literature, 
but  will  endeavor  to  show  that  it  partook  of  the  char- 
acter of  its  time,  as  the  best  literature  is  always 
the  best  exponent  of  the  age  which  brings  it  forth. 

In  the  study  of  English  institutions,  it  is  not 
wise  to  dwell  at  length  upon  conditions  prior  to  the 


yo  Treatment 

Norman  period,  and  indeed  even  the  ordinary 
political  events  before  the  time  of  Egbert  should 
be  passed  over  rapidly.  To  the  secondary  pupil 
the  details  of  what  Milton  called  the  "battles  of 
the  kites  and  crows "  are  dreary  and  unprofit- 
able :  apocryphal  martyrdoms,  legends  of  doubt- 
ful authenticity,  and  scores  of  unpronounceable 
names  are  useless  burdens  to  the  healthful  memory 
of  a  boy  of  sixteen,  whose  mind  promptly  refuses 
assimilation.  But  the  origins  of  later  institutions, 
so  far  as  they  appear  in  Anglo-Saxon  times,  are 
not  uninteresting  and  may  well  be  noticed. 

When  institutions  familiar  to  us  in  modern  life 
are  fairly  established  the  pupil's  interest  is  nat- 
urally awakened,  and  time  is  rightly  devoted 
to  their  study.  The  jury,  the  offices  of  sheriff 
and  coroner,  and  like  matters,  deserve  attention; 
and  something  may  be  done  even  with  the  devel- 
opment of  the  common  law  in  early  England. 
But,  in  all  the  work,  effort  should  be  made  to 
understand  institutions  that  have  lived  rather  than 
those  that  have  perished ;  such  study  cannot  fail 
to  bring  home  a  sense  of  our  indebtedness  to  the 
past.  It  is  unnecessary,  however,  to  indicate 
here  in  detail  how  the  successive  steps  in  the 
development  of  English  institutions  and  of  English 
liberties  may  be  brought  out ;  such  a  presentation 
would  involve  a  longer  treatment  than  can  be  given 


English  Institutions  71 

here ;  but  it  is  not  out  of  place  to  say  that  stress 
should  be  laid  chiefly  upon  the  important  constitu- 
tional movements  and  the  establishment  of  princi- 
ples which  mark  a  stage  of  progress,  and  are 
preparations  for  institutions,  principles,  and  ideas 
that  are  to  follow. 

In  teaching  English  constitutional  history,  it  is 
the  institutions  of  south  Britain  that  demand  chief 
attention;  but  in  teaching  the  history  of  the 
nation,  as  apart  from  that  of  the  state,  it  is  essen- 
tial that  the  common  practice  of  neglecting  Welsh, 
Scottish,  and  Irish  history  be  abandoned  in  Amer- 
ican schools;  otherwise  no  idea  is  gained  of  the 
composite  nature  of  the  nation  which  has  built  up 
the  British  Empire,  and  spread  abroad  the  knowl- 
edge of  English  institutions  and  the  use  of  the 
English  language.  Even  in  studying  the  early 
history,  care  should  be  taken  to  bring  out  the  fact 
that  there  were  such  people  as  the  Welsh,  Scots, 
and  Irish ;  and,  although  it  is  not  advisable  to 
consider  in  any  detail  the  history  of  these  nations 
in  later  times,  yet  some  of  the  more  important 
events  should  be  dwelt  upon ;  the  relationships 
with  south  Britain  should  be  kept  in  mind;  and 
such  knowledge  of  their  development  should  be 
given  that  the  final  welding  of  all  into  a  single 
British  kingdom  becomes  intelligible. 

It  is  very  desirable  that  the  expansion  and  the 


72  Treatment 

imperial  development  of  Britain  should  receive 
adequate  notice.  School-books  rarely  lay  suffi- 
cient emphasis  upon  this  phase  of  the  subject: 
the  real  meaning  of  the  American  Revolution 
is  usually  not  disclosed;  Dettingen,  Fontenoy, 
and  Minden  sometimes  obscure  Louisburg,  Que- 
bec, and  Plassey.  Without  Drake,  Raleigh,  Clive, 
and  Gordon,  English  history  of  the  last  three 
centuries  is  not  English  history  at  all.  The 
colonial  system  also,  and  the  general  colonial 
policy  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries, 
demand  attention  in  American  schools ;  and  the 
foundation  of  British  dominion  in  India  cannot 
rightly  be  made  subordinate  to  party  struggles  in 
parliament  or  to  ministerial  successions.  Finally, 
to  trace  the  growth  of  the  British  Empire  in  the 
nineteenth  century;  to  see  how  the  colonists  of 
Canada,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  South 
Africa  have  obtained  and  used  the  right  of  self- 
government,  and  how  the  East  India  Company's 
settlements  have  developed  into  an  imperial 
dependency  under  the  British  crown,  —  these 
topics  are  more  important  than  any  study  of 
ordinary  party  politics  within  the  old  sea-girt 
realm  of  England. 

By  paying  attention  to  the  continental  relations 
of  England  it  will  be  possible  to  review  the  more 
important  movements  of  European  history,  and  to 


Relation  to  European  73 

give  the  pupil  new  views  of  their  meanings. 
If  these  side-views  of  continental  conditions  are 
offered  too  frequently,  the  class  may  become 
confused,  and  lose  sight  even  of  the  well-worn 
paths  of  English  constitutional  progress ;  judicious 
reference  and  comparison,  however,  will  not  be 
distracting,  but  will  assist  the  pupils  in  appre- 
ciating the  meaning  of  what  was  going  on  within 
the  four  seas.  A  study  of  English  feudalism 
will  give  an  opportunity  to  review  what  has  been 
learned  of  the  continental  characteristics  of  that 
institution.  The  crusades  cannot  be  studied  as  if 
Richard  I.  were  the  only  king  who  took  the  cross. 
Who  can  understand  the  quarrel  between  Henry  I. 
and  Anselm,  if  he  has  no  knowledge  of  the  contest 
between  Gregory  and  Henry  of  Germany  ?  Can 
even  the  Norman  conquest  be  known  without 
some  sense  of  who  the  Northmen  were  and  what 
they  had  been  doing  ?  Does  one  get  the  force  of 
the  great  liberal  movements  of  the  seventeenth 
century  without  some  slight  comparison  between 
the  Charleses  of  England  and  the  Louises  of 
France  ?  Although  this  comparative  method  may 
be  overdone,  we  believe  that  careful  and  judicious 
comparisons  and  illustrations  will  prove  illuminat- 
ing, suggestive,  and  in  all  ways  helpful. 


74  Treatment 

IV.    American  History 

If  American  history  is  studied,  as  the  commit 
tee  recommends,  in  the  last  year  of  the  secondary 
school,  it  should  be  taken  up  as  an  advanced  sub- 
ject, with  the  purpose  of  getting  a  clear  idea  of  the 
course  of  events  in  the  building  of  the  American 
Republic  and  the  development  of  its  political  ideas. 
Its  chief  objects  should  be  to  lead  the  pupil  to  a 
knowledge  of  the  fundamentals  of  the  state  and 
society  of  which  he  is  a  part,  to  an  appreciation  of 
his  duties  as  a  citizen,  and  to  an  intelligent,  toler- 
ant patriotism. 

It  is  not  desirable  that  much  time  should  be  de- 
voted to  the  colonial  history.  The  period  is  espe- 
cially interesting  if  viewed  as  a  chapter  in  the 
expansion  of  England,  a  chapter  in  the  story  of  the 
struggle  between  the  nations  of  western  Europe 
for  colonies,  commerce,  and  dominion.  It  must  be 
viewed,  too,  as  a  time  when  the  spirit  of  self-suffi- 
ciency and  self-determination  was  growing,  —  a 
spirit  which  accounts  for  the  Revolution  and  for 
the  dominating  vigor  of  the  later  democracy.  At- 
tention may  be  paid  to  the  establishment  of  indus- 
trial conditions  and  of  habits  of  industrial  activity 
as  explaining  political  differences  in  subsequent 
times,  especially  as  explaining  the  divergence  of 
North  and  South  after  constitutional  union  had 


American  History  75 

been  formed.  Slight  notice  should  be  taken  of 
military  campaigns  in  any  portion  of  the  study, 
though  the  importance  of  intercolonial  wars  can 
easily  be  underestimated,  and  the  main  facts  of 
other  wars,  especially,  of  course,  the  Revolutionary 
and  the  Civil  war,  cannot  be  neglected. 

In  the  study  of  American  history  it  is  especially 
desirable  that  the  development  of  the  political  or- 
ganizations be  clearly  brought  forth.  Nothing 
should  be  allowed  to  obscure  the  leading  features 
of  our  constitutional  system.  The  pupil  must  see 
the  characteristics  of  American  political  life  and 
know  the  forms  and  methods,  as  well  as  the  prin- 
ciples, of  political  activity.  He  must  have  know- 
ledge of  the  ideals  of  American  life,  and  must  study 
the  principles  of  American  society  as  they  have 
expressed  themselves  in  institutions  and  embodied 
themselves  in  civic  forms. 

Much  has  been  said  about  the  necessity  of  study- 
ing the  social  and  industrial  history  of  the  United 
States,  and  some  practical  teachers  have  declared 
that  chief  stress  should  be  laid  upon  social  and 
economic  features l  of  the  past  life  of  the  people. 
Such  a  study  is  certainly  very  desirable ;  the  stu- 
dent should  come  to  a  realization  of  the  nature  of 
the  problems  of  the  industrial  world  about  him, 

1  There  is  a  marked  difference  between  studying  economic  his« 
tory  and  studying  economic  features  or  conditions. 


76  Treatment 

and  should  see  the  gradual  changes  that  have 
been  wrought  as  the  years  have  gone  by.  History 
should  be  made  real  to  him  through  the  study  of  the 
daily  ordinary  life  of  man,  and  he  should  be  led  to  feel 
that  only  a  very  small  portion  of  man's  activities  or 
strivings  is  expressed  by  legislatures,  congresses, 
or  cabinets;  that,  especially  under  a  government 
such  as  ours,  the  industrial  conditions,  the  bodily 
needs,  the  social  desires,  the  moral  longings  of  the 
people,  determine  ultimately,  if  not  immediately, 
the  character  of  the  law  and  the  nature  of  the  gov- 
ernment itself.  We  do  not  think,  however,  that 
economic  or  social  facts  should  be  emphasized  at 
the  expense  of  governmental  or  political  facts. 
It  seems  wise  to  say  that  the  greatest  aim  of 
education  is  to  impress  upon  the  learner  a  sense 
of  duty  and  responsibility,  and  an  acquaintance 
with  his  human  obligations;  and  that  a  manifest 
function  of  the  historical  instruction  in  the  school 
is  to  give  to  the  pupil  a  sense  of  duty  as  a  respon- 
sible member  of  that  organized  society  of  which 
he  is  a  part,  and  some  appreciation  of  its  principles 
and  its  fundamental  character.  In  other  words, 
while  industrial  and  social  phases  of  progress 
should  by  no  means  be  slighted,  it  is  an  absolute 
necessity  that  a  course  in  American  history  should 
aim  to  give  a  connected  narrative  of  political  events 
and  to  record  the  gradual  upbuilding  of  institu- 


Industrial  and  Social  77 

tions,  the  slow  establishment  of  political  ideals 
and  practices. 

Fortunately,  as  we  have  already  suggested, 
many  of  the  most  important  events  in  our  social 
and  industrial  history  are  so  intimately  connected 
with  the  course  of  our  political  history  that  the 
two  subjects  seem  not  two  but  one.  Changes  in 
modes  of  industry  or  in  social  conditions,  improve- 
ments in  methods  of  labor,  intellectual  and  moral 
movements,  have  manifested  themselves  in  po- 
litical action,  have  influenced  party  creeds,  or  in 
some  other  way  affected  the  forms  or  the  conduct 
of  the  body  politic.  In  a  democratic  country, 
any  important  change  in  the  life  of  the  people 
is  of  importance  in  political  history,  because  the 
people  are  the  state.  Many  of  the  economic  and 
social  changes,  therefore,  can  best  be  studied  as 
they  show  themselves  in  organized  effort  or  are 
embodied  in  political  institutions.  If  one  looks  at 
political  activities  or  endeavors  to  understand  con- 
stitutions, without  knowledge  of  the  lives  and 
hopes  of  the  people,  the  strivings  of  trade  and 
commerce,  the  influence  of  inventions  and  dis- 
coveries, the  effects  of  immigration,  he  knows  but 
little  of  the  whence  or  the  how,  and  deals  with 
symbols,  not  with  things. 

While  we  believe,  then,  that  the  chief  aim  should 
be  to  give  the  pupil  knowledge  of  the  progress  of 


78  Treatment 

political  institutions,  ideas,  and  tendencies,  we 
believe  also  that  he  should  know  the  economic 
phases  of  life ;  that  whenever  possible,  attention 
should  be  directed  not  merely  to  economic  and 
social  conditions,  but  to  economic  and  social  devel- 
opments; and  that  those  economic,  industrial,  or 
social  modifications  should  receive  chief  attention 
which  have  permanently  altered  social  organiza- 
tion, or  have  become  imbedded  in  institutions, 
ideas,  or  governmental  forms.  We  should  in  our 
study  endeavor  to  see  the  full  importance,  because 
we  see  the  results,  of  the  fact  that  Virginia  grew 
tobacco  and  South  Carolina  rice,  and  that  the 
New  Englanders  were  fishermen  and  went  down 
to  the  sea  in  ships ;  we  should  try  to  recognize  the 
meanings  of  slavery  and  white  servitude,  of  cotton 
and  the  sugar  trade,  of  the  steamboat,  the  rail- 
road, the  telegraph,  the  rotary  press,  the  sewing 
machine.  We  should  see,  if  we  can,  how  such 
things  influenced  human  progress  and  had  effect 
on  the  nature,  organization,  and  destinies  of  the 
American  people. 

Now  a  careful  study  like  this  is  not  possible  for 
students  in  their  early  years.  In  the  grades  be- 
low the  secondary  school,  use  may  well  be  made 
of  mere  descriptions  of  past  times,  of  houses  and 
apparel,  of  the  snuff-boxes,  wigs,  and  silken  hose 
of  our  great-grandfathers  ;  for  such  pictures  help 


Economic  History  79 

to  awaken  the  imagination,  to  furnish  it  with  food, 
to  bring  home  the  idea  that  men  and  their  sur- 
roundings have  changed,  and  to  prepare  the  mind 
for  the  later  growth  of  historical  power  and  capa- 
cities.1 But  though  the  pupil  must  know  bygone 
conditions  and  must  seek  to  get  a  vivid  picture 
of  the  past,  the  ultimate  aim  of  history  is  to  dis- 
close not  what  was,  but  what  became.  Totally 
unrelated  facts  are  of  antiquarian  rather  than  of 
historical  interest.  In  the  secondary  school,  then, 
and  especially  in  the  later  years  of  the  course,  atten- 
tion must  be  paid  to  movements,  and  an  effort 
must  be  made  to  cultivate  the  faculty  for  drawing 
truthful  generalizations,  for  seeing  and  compre- 
hending tendencies. 

We  hope  that  from  this  statement  no  one  will 
get  the  idea  that  we  are  waging  war  on  economic 
history,  or  the  study  of  what  the  Germans  have 
happily  called  "  culturgeschichte"  But  we  con- 

1  We  recognize  fully  the  historical  value  of  many  things  that 
seem  at  first  sight  unimportant.  When,  for  example,  we  are  told 
that  the  old  Federalists  wore  wigs  and  the  Republicans  did  not, 
we  recognize  a  fact  that  marks  a  change  and  symbolizes  political 
creeds  and  party  differences.  Taine  says  that  about  the  twentieth 
year  of  Elizabeth's  reign  the  nobles  gave  up  the  shield  and  two- 
handed  sword  for  the  rapier,  —  "  a  little,  almost  imperceptible  fact," 
he  remarks,  "  yet  vast,  for  it  is  like  the  change  which  sixty  years 
ago  made  us  give  up  the  sword  at  court,  to  leave  our  arms  swinging 
about  in  our  black  coats." 


8o  Treatment 

tend  that,  since  there  is  so  much  to  be  done  in  a 
single  year,  there  is  no  time  for  the  study  of  such 
past  industrial  and  social  conditions  —  though  they 
may  be  indeed  interesting  phenomena  —  as  stand 
unrelated,  isolated,  and  hence  meaningless,  and 
are  perhaps  without  real  historical  value.  Time 
must  rather  be  given  to  the  important,  to  condi- 
tions which  were  fruitful  of  results,  to  movements, 
changes,  and  impulses  in  industrial  as  well  as  in 
political  society.  No  study  of  economic  forms  or 
social  phases  should  hide  from  view  the  political 
and  social  ideas  for  which  our  country  stands,  and 
which  have  been  the  developments  of  our  history. 
We  have  entered  upon  this  subject  at  some 
length  in  connection  with  a  consideration  of 
American  history,  because  many  of  the  state- 
ments seem  important,  and  because  much  that  is 
said,  while  peculiarly  applicable  to  American  his- 
tory, is  likewise  true  of  other  fields.  Especially 
in  the  study  of  English  history  should  effort  be 
made  to  connect  economic  and  intellectual  condi- 
tions with  the  progress  of  England,  to  look  for 
changes  in  the  succeeding  centuries,  and  to  see 
how  political  organization  and  social  needs  reacted 
one  upon  the  other.  And  yet  how  often  has  Wat 
Tyler's  insurrection  been  studied  as  a  mere  upris- 
ing of  political  malcontents  endangering  the  safety 
or  the  bodily  ease  of  young  Richard  II.  1  How 


Civil  Government  81 

often  has  the  devastation  of  the  North  been  studied 
as  if  it  had  a  bearing  only  on  the  fortunes  of  the 
Norman  dynasty  !  How  often  have  inventions  and 
discoveries  been  stated  as  merely  isolated  phenom- 
ena, —  such  changes,  for  example,  as  that  marked 
by  the  use  of  pit-coal  in  the  making  of  iron,  as  if 
they  were  of  only  scientific  interest ! 

V.    Civil  Government 

Much  time  will  be  saved  and  better  results  ob- 
tained if  history  and  civil  government  be  studied 
in  large  measure  together,  as  one  subject  rather 
than  as  two  distinct  subjects.  We  are  sure  that, 
in  the  light  of  what  has  been  said  in  the  earlier 
portions  of  this  report  about  the  desirability  of 
school  pupils  knowing  their  political  surroundings 
and  duties,  no  one  will  suppose  that  in  what  we 
here  recommend  we  underestimate  the  value  of 
civil  government  or  wish  to  lessen  the  effective- 
ness of  the  study.  What  we  desire  to  emphasize 
is  the  fact  that  the  two  subjects  are  in  some  re- 
spects one,  and  that  there  is  a  distinct  loss  of 
energy  in  studying  a  small  book  on  American  his- 
tory and  afterward  a  small  book  on  civil  govern- 
ment, or  vice  versa,  when  by  combining  the  two  a 
substantial  course  may  be  given. 

In  any  complete  and  thorough  secondary  course 


82  Treatment 

in  these  subjects  there  must  be,  probably,  a  sepa- 
rate study  of  civil  government,  in  which  may  be 
discussed  such  topics  as  municipal  government, 
state  institutions,  the  nature  and  origin  of  civil 
society,  some  fundamental  notions  of  law  and 
justice,  and  like  matters ;  and  it  may  even  be 
necessary,  if  the  teacher  desires  to  give  a  complete 
course  and  can  command  the  time,  to  supplement 
work  in  American  history  with  a  formal  study  of 
the  Constitution  and  the  workings  of  the  national 
government.  But  we  repeat  that  a  great  deal  of 
what  is  commonly  called  civil  government  can 
best  be  studied  as  a  part  of  history.  To  know  the 
present  form  of  our  institutions  well,  one  should 
see  whence  they  came  and  how  they  developed ; 
but  to  show  origins,  developments,  changes,  is  the 
task  of  history,  and  in  the  proper  study  of  his- 
tory one  sees  just  these  movements  and  knows 
their  results. 

It  would  of  course  be  foolish  to  say  that  the 
secondary  pupil  can  trace  the  steps  in  the  develop- 
ment of  all  our  institutions,  laws,  political  theories, 
and  practices  ;  but  some  of  them  he  can  trace, 
and  he  should  be  enabled  to  do  so  in  his  course  in 
American  history.  How  it  came  about  that  we 
have  a  federal  system  of  government  rather  than 
a  centralized  state ;  what  were  the  colonial  begin- 
nings of  our  systems  of  local  government ;  how 


Government  and  History        83 

the  Union  itself  grew  into  being ;  why  the  Con- 
stitution provided  against  general  warrants ;  why 
the  first  ten  amendments  were  adopted  ;  why  the 
American  people  objected  to  bills  of  attainder  and 
declared  against  them  in  their  fundamental  law,  — 
these,  and  a  score  of  other  questions,  naturally 
arise  in  the  study  of  history,  and  an  answer  to 
them  gives  meaning  to  our  Constitution.  Moreover, 
the  most  fundamental  ideas  in  the  political  struc- 
ture of  the  United  States  may  best  be  seen  in 
a  study  of  the  problems  of  history.  The  nature 
of  the  Constitution  as  an  instrument  of  govern- 
ment, the  relation  of  the  central  authority  to  the 
states,  the  theory  of  state  sovereignty  or  that  of 
national  unity,  the  rise  of  parties  and  the  growth 
of  party  machinery,  —  these  subjects  are  best 
understood  when  seen  in  their  historical  settings. 
But  in  addition  to  this,  many,  if  not  all,  of  the 
provisions  of  the  Constitution  may  be  seen  in  the 
study  of  history,  not  as  mere  descriptions  written 
on  a  piece  of  parchment,  but  as  they  are  em- 
bodied in  working  institutions.  The  best  way  to 
understand  institutions  is  to  see  them  in  action ; 
the  best  way  to  understand  forms  is  to  see  them 
used.  By  studying  civil  government  in  connection 
with  history,  the  pupil  studies  the  concrete  and  the 
actual.  The  process  of  impeachment,  the  appoint- 
ing power  of  the  president,  the  make-up  of  the 


84  Treatment 

cabinet,  the  power  of  the  speaker,  the  organization 
of  the  territories,  the  adoption  and  purpose  of  the 
amendments,  the  methods  of  annexing  territory, 
the  distribution  of  the  powers  of  government  and 
their  working  relations,  indeed  all  the  important 
parts  of  the  Constitution  that  have  been  translated 
into  existing,  acting  institutions,  may  be  studied  as 
they  have  acted.  If  one  does  not  pay  attention  to 
such  subjects  as  these  in  the  study  of  history, 
what  is  left  but  wars  and  rumors  of  wars,  partisan 
contentions  and  meaningless  details  ? 

We  do  not  advise  that  text-books  on  civil  govern- 
ment be  discarded,  even  when  there  is  no  oppor- 
tunity to  give  a  separate  course  in  the  subject. 
On  the  contrary,  such  a  book  should  always  be 
ready  for  use,  in  order  that  the  teacher  may  prop- 
erly illustrate  the  past  by  reference  to  the  present. 
If  the  pupils  can  make  use  of  good  books  on  the 
Constitution  and  laws,  so  much  the  better.  What 
we  desire  to  recommend  is  simply  this,  that  in  any 
school  where  there  is  no  time  for  sound,  substantial 
courses  in  both  civil  government  and  history,  the 
history  be  taught  in  such  a  way  that  the  pupil  will 
gain  a  knowledge  of  the  essentials  of  the  political 
system  which  is  the  product  of  that  history ;  and 
that,  where  there  is  time  for  separate  courses,  they 
be  taught,  not  as  isolated,  but  as  interrelated  and 
interdependent  subjects.  Bishop  Stubbs  in  a 


Teaching  of  Government        85 

memorable  sentence  has  said,  "The  roots  of  the 
present  lie  deep  in  the  past,  and  nothing  in  the 
past  is  dead  to  the  man  who  would  learn  how 
the  present  comes  to  be  what  it  is."  Though  we 
must  not  distort  the  past  in  an  effort  to  give  mean- 
ing to  the  present,  yet  we  can  fully  understand 
the  present  only  by  a  study  of  the  past ;  and  the 
past,  on  the  other  hand,  is  appreciated  only  by 
those  who  know  the  present. 


Methods   of  Instruction 

IN  the  early  part  of  this  report,  attention  is 
called  to  the  fact  that  there  seems  to  be  some 
agreement  among  teachers  of  history  concerning 
the  methods  of  teaching;  and  we  have  attributed 
this  agreement  in  some  measure  to  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  Madison  Conference,  whose  re- 
port has  been  widely  read  and  used  throughout  the 
country.  Doubtless  there  are  many  other  reasons 
for  the  improvement  of  the  last  ten  years,  chief 
among  which  is  the  increased  supply  of  well-trained 
teachers.  There  has  been  also  a  new  recognition 
of  the  purpose  of  history  teaching,  a  growing  reali- 
zation on  the  part  of  teachers  of  why  they  teach 
the  subject  and  of  what  they  hope  to  accomplish. 
If  one  has  distinctly  in  his  mind  the  end  that  he 
seeks  to  gain,  he  will  be  likely  to  discover  suitable 
means  and  methods  of  teaching.  More  impor- 
tant, therefore,  than  method,  is  object :  means  are 
valueless  to  one  who  has  no  end  to  be  attained. 
The  teacher  who  is  seeking  means  and  methods 
should  first  inquire  whether  he  is  sure  that  he 
knows  what  he  wishes  to  accomplish. 

86 


Interest  in  Methods  87 

It  is  unnecessary  for  us  to  go  into  this  subject 
at  very  great  length.  If  teachers  have  been  stimu- 
lated by  the  report  of  the  Madison  Conference,  and 
have  learned  to  obtain  from  it  what  is  adapted  to 
their  wants,  and  to  disregard  what  seems  to  them  to 
be  unsuited  to  their  needs,  they  can  continue  to  fol- 
low it.  In  spite  of  the  six  years  of  experience  that 
have  elapsed  since  that  report  was  publisned,  this 
committee  will  perhaps  be  no  wiser  in  its  recom- 
mendations and  suggestions ;  and  if  there  is  now  a 
manifest  drift  toward  what  we  may  be  suffered  to 
call  "  advanced  "  methods,  the  best  plan  may  be  to 
leave  well  enough  alone,  with  the  firm  assurance 
that  the  best  methods  will  be  widely  used  only 
when  there  is  a  full  realization  of  the  purposes 
and  the  nature  of  the  study. 

While  discussing  the  value  of  historical  work, 
we  have  necessarily  considered  the  aims  and  ob- 
jects of  instruction.  The  chief  purpose  is  not  to 
fill  the  boy's  head  with  a  mass  of  material,  which 
he  may  perchance  put  forth  again  when  a  college 
examiner  demands  its  production.  Without  under- 
estimating the  value  of  historical  knowledge,  and 
deprecating  nothing  more  than  a  readiness  to 
argue  and  contend  about  the  meaning  of  facts  that 
have  not  been  established,1  we  contend  that  the 

1  History,  unlike  some  other  subjects  in  the  curriculum,  is  a 
subject  to  be  studied  for  its  own  sake  and  not  merely  for  discipli- 


88  Methods 

accumulation  of  facts  is  not  the  sole,  or  per- 
haps not  the  leading,  purpose  of  studying  history. 
No  other  subject  in  the  high-school  curriculum 
is  stigmatized  as  an  information  study  simply, 
rather  than  an  educational  study.  Not  even 
arithmetic  —  beyond  decimals  and  percentage  — 
is  looked  upon  as  valuable  for  the  stubble  that  it 
stores  away  in  the  head,  where  the  brain  has  not 
been  called  into  activity  or  taught  to  use  the  ma- 
terial which  it  is  asked  to  retain.  But  for  some 
unaccountable  reason,  it  has  been  held  that  boys 
and  girls  must  not  think  about  historical  material, 
or  be  taught  to  reason  or  be  led  to  approach  events 
with  the  historical  spirit.  The  scientific  spirit  can 
be  awakened  and  methods  of  scientific  thinking 
cultivated ;  power  in  handling  language  and  an 
ability  for  grasping  grammatical  distinctions  can  be 
developed ;  even  the  literary  sense  can  be  fostered 
and  promoted ;  but  the  historical  sense,  the  begin- 
nings of  historical  thinking,  it  is  sometimes  gravely 

nary  purposes.  The  information  obtained  by  the  study  is  a  con- 
tinuous source  of  pleasure  and  profit.  Moreover,  no  subject  can 
have  the  best  pedagogical  results  if  its  acknowledged  purpose  is 
not  to  acquire  knowledge  but  to  get  training.  The  mind  naturally 
seizes  and  uses  information  which  is  at  once  interesting  and  useful; 
above  all,  it  grasps  that  which  is  interesting  because  it  is  useful. 
Jty  what  is  said  in  the  text,  we  wish  to  emphasize  the  disciplinary 
value  of  the  study,  but  not  to  belittle  its  value  for  information  and 
culture. 


Training  89 

said,  cannot  be  expected ;  all  that  one  can  do  is  to 
give  information,  in  the  hope  that  in  some  distant 
day  pleasant  and  helpful  reactions  will  take  place 
within  the  brain.  Fortunately,  the  number  of  per- 
sons who  argue  in  this  way  has  decreased  and  is 
decreasing,  and  we  may  well  leave  those  that  re- 
main to  the  intelligent  teachers  of  history  through- 
out the  land,  who  are  awake  to  the  possibilities  of 
their  subject,  and  who  see  the  boys  and  girls  grow- 
ing in  power  and  efficiency  under  their  hands.1 

Pupils  who  can  study  physics  and  geometry,  or 
read  Cicero's  orations,  must  be  presumed  to  have 
powers  of  logic  and  capacity  to  follow  argument. 
Teachers  of  English  put  into  their  pupils'  hands 
such  masterpieces  as  Burke's  "  Speech  on  Concili- 
ation with  America "  and  Webster's  "  Reply  to 
Hayne."  It  is  certainly  unwise  to  use  such  mate- 
rial for  English  work  if  it  is  impossible  for  boys 
and  girls  of  sixteen  to  understand  what  these 
statesmen  were  talking  about,  or  to  see  the  force 

1  We  may  justly  contend  that  an  effort  to  store  facts  in  pupils' 
heads  often  defeats  its  own  ends.  College  professors  who  have 
looked  over  entrance  examination  papers  for  many  years,  as  most 
members  of  this  committee  have  done,  are  struck  by  the  marvellous 
accumulation  of  misinformation  which  has  been  acquired  and  held 
with  calm  belief  and  placid  assurance.  We  may  seriously  inquire 
whether  instruction  in  method  of  looking  at  facts  and  training  in 
thinking  about  them  would  not  leave  a  greater  residuum  of  actual 
information. 


90  Methods 

of  their  arguments ;  for,  if  language  is  conceded 
to  be  a  vehicle  of  ideas,  it  cannot  be  studied  as  a 
thing  apart,  without  reference  to  its  content.  And 
if  Burke  and  Cicero  and  Patrick  Henry  and  Daniel 
Webster  can  be  understood  in  language  work,  it 
seems  reasonable  to  hold  that  they  can  be  under- 
stood in  history  work,  and  hence  that  pupils  may 
fairly  be  asked  to  think  of  what  they  see  and  read. 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  give  minute  and  particu- 
lar directions  concerning  methods  of  historical  in- 
struction. A  short  list  of  books  from  which  teachers 
may  obtain  helpful  suggestions  for  classroom  work 
will  be  found  in  Appendix  VII.  to  this  report.  In 
drafting  the  recommendations  which  follow  here,  we 
have  had  in  mind  only  certain  general  methods 
which  we  think  specially  useful  for  bringing  out 
the  educational  value  of  the  study. 

I.  We  believe  that  in  most  cases  the  teacher 
should  use  a  text-book.  If  the  book  is  prepared  by 
a  practical  teacher  and  a  scholar,  it  is  probably  the 
product  of  much  toil,  which  has  been  devoted  to 
a  consideration  of  proportion  and  order  as  well  as 
to  accuracy,  and  it  is  therefore  likely  to  unfold  the 
subject  more  systematically  than  a  teacher  can  pos- 
sibly do  unless-  he  has  wide  training,  long  experi- 
ence, and,  in  addition,  daily  opportunity  carefully  to 
examine  the  field  and  to  search  out  the  nature  of 
the  problems  that  he  is  called  upon  to  discuss. 


Text-Books  91 

Without  the  use  of  a  text  it  is  difficult  to  hold  the 
pupils  to  a  definite  line  of  work :  there  is  danger 
of  incoherence  and  confusion.  While,  therefore, 
we  strongly  advise  the  use  of  material  outside  of 
the  text,  we  feel  that  the  use  of  the  topical  method 
alone  will  in  the  great  majority  of  instances  result 
in  the  pupils'  having  unconnected  information. 
They  will  lose  sight  of  the  main  current ;  and  it 
is  the  current  and  not  the  eddies  which  they 
should  watch. 

In  some  classes,  especially  in  the  more  advanced 
grades,  it  may  be  possible  to  use  more  than  one 
text-book.  "  By  preparing  in  different  books,  or, 
by  using  more  than  one  book  on  a  lesson,  pupils 
will  acquire  the  habit  of  comparison,  and  the  no 
less  important  habit  of  doubting  whether  any  one 
book  covers  the  ground."  1  In  an  attempt  to  dis- 
cover the  truth  they  may  be  led  to  study  more 
widely  for  themselves,  and  will  surely  find  that 
there  are  sources  of  information  outside  of  the 
printed  page.  The  use  of  more  than  one  text  will, 
however,  often  present  many  practical  difficulties 
to  the  teacher ;  and  this  will  surely  be  the  case 
unless  he  has  the  time  and  opportunity  to  master 
all  the  texts  himself  and  to  examine  outside  material 
with  care.  In  most  schools  there  is  a  decided  ad- 
vantage in  having  one  line  along  which  the  class 

1  Report  of  the  Committee  [of  Ten]  (Washington,  1893),  l%9> 


92  Methods 

may  move.  Often  it  may  prove  helpful  to  use 
supplementary  texts,  in  order  to  amplify  and 
modify  the  regular  class-book;  this  may  be  done 
by  the  teacher  when  comparison  by  the  class  might 
prove  distracting.1 

II.  Material  outside  of  the  text-book  should  be 
used  in  all  branches  of  historical  study  and  in  every 
year  of  the  secondary  course.  Life  and  interest 
may  in  this  way  be  given  to  the  work ;  pupils  may  be 
introduced  to  good  literature  and  be  taught  to  han- 
dle books.  This  collateral  material  may  be  used  in 
various  ways,  and  of  course  much  more  should  be 
expected  of  the  later  classes  than  of  the  earlier; 
indeed,  there  should  be  a  consistent  purpose  to 
develop  gradually  and  systematically  this  power  of 
using  books.  Often,  especially  in  the  earlier  years, 
the  teacher  will  read  to  the  class  passages  from  en- 
tertaining histories.  Younger  pupils  without  previ- 
ous training  should  not  be  expected  to  find  the  books 

1  After  this  portion  of  the  report,  dealing  with  methods,  was  read, 
at  the  meeting  of  the  American  Historical  Association,  in  1898, 
one  teacher  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  report  did  not  suffi- 
ciently emphasize  the  oral  recitations  ;  another,  that  we  did  not 
sufficiently  emphasize  written  work  ;  another,  that  we  did  not 
sufficiently  emphasize  the  value  of  more  than  one  text-book.  We 
do  not  wish  to  underestimate  any  means  which  any  teacher  finds 
suited  to  his  needs  and  productive  of  good  results.  Teachers  must 
of  course  use  their  own  discretion  as  to  how  far  various  methods 
may  be  followed  ;  hut  we  think  that  all  of  the  ideas  and  plans  here 
suggested  will  prove  helpful. 


Reading  93 

that  treat  of  certain  topics,  or  to  know  how  to  find 
the  portions  desired.  Let  the  pupil  learn  how  to 
understand  and  use  pages  before  he  uses  books ; 
and  let  him  learn  how  to  use  one  or  two  books 
before  he  is  set  to  rummaging  in  a  library.  For 
example,  a  class  in  the  first  year  of  the  secondary 
school  may  be  asked  to  tell  what  is  said  of  Mara- 
thon in  Botsford's  "History  of  Greece,"  p.  121. 
A  twelfth-grade  class,  properly  trained,  may  be 
asked  to  compare  Lecky's  account  of  the  Stamp 
Act  with  Bancroft's,  or  to  find  out  what  they  can 
in  the  books  of  the  library  concerning  the  defects 
of  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 

III.  Something  in  the  way  of  written  work 
should  be  done  in  every  year  of  the  secondary 
school.  It  is  unnecessary  to  caution  teachers 
against  requiring  the  sort  of  work  in  the  early 
years  that  may  reasonably  be  expected  in  the 
later  part  of  the  course.  Younger  pupils,  who 
have  had  little  or  no  training  in  doing  written  work 
of  this  character,  might  be  required  simply  to  con- 
dense and  put  into  their  own  language  a  few  pages 
of  Grote  or  Mommsen,  or  to  write  out  in  simple 
form  some  abstract  of  Thucydides's  account  of  the 
fate  of  the  Sicilian  expedition,  or  of  Herodotus's 
description  of  the  battle  of  Thermopylae,  or  to  do 
similar  tasks.  In  the  later  years  more  difficult 
tasks  may  be  assigned,  demanding  the  use  of  sev- 


94  Methods 

eral  books  and  the  weaving  together  of  various 
narratives  or  opinions.  It  may  be  said  by  some 
persons  that  such  work  as  this  is  for  the  English 
teacher,  not  for  the  history  teacher;  but  it  can 
hardly  be  asserted  that  skill  in  the  use  of  historical 
books,  practice  in  acquiring  historical  information, 
and  the  ability  to  put  forth  in  one's  own  language 
what  has  been  read,  are  not  objects  of  historical 
training. 

IV.  It   may   at   times    prove   helpful   to   have 
written  recitations  or  tests.     Teachers  have  often 
found  that  this  method  secures  accuracy  and  defi- 
niteness   of   statement.      Some   pupils  who  have 
difficulty  in  organizing  and  arranging  the  informa- 
tion which  they  possess,  and  who  consequently  are 
not   so   successful   as   others   in   oral   recitations, 
often  succeed  admirably  in  written  exercises,  and 
by  their  success  are  stimulated  and  encouraged  to 
do  thoughtful  and  systematic  work. 

V.  Many  teachers  have  been  aided  in  their  work 
by  requiring  the  class  to  keep  note-books  ;  and  the 
committee   favors   the   adoption  of    this    system, 
which  has  proved  so  serviceable  in  the  study  of 
the  sciences.     These  books  may  contain  analyses 
of  the  text,  notes  on  outside  matter  presented  in 
class,   a  list  of   books  with  which  the   pupil  has 
himself  become  acquainted,  and  perhaps  also  some 
condensations  of  his  reading.     An  analytical  ar- 


Written  Work  95 

rangement  of  the  more  important  topics  that  are 
discussed  in  the  course  of  the  study  may  also  be 
placed  in  the  note-book;  this  plan  will  help  the 
student  to  see  the  different  lines  of  development 
and  change.  For  example,  under  the  head  of 
"  Slavery  "  short  statements  may  be  inserted  of 
the  facts  that  have  been  learned  from  the  text ;  by 
so  doing  the  pupil  will  have  at  the  end  of  his 
work  a  condensed  narrative  of  the  introduction, 
growth,  and  effect  of  slavery,  and  will  be  led  to 
see  the  continuity  of  the  slavery  question  as  he 
would  probably  be  unable  to  see  it  by  any  other 
means. 

VI.  Fortunately  it  is  unnecessary  in  these  latter 
days  to  call  the  teacher's  attention  to  the  use  of 
maps,  and  to  the  idea  that  geography  and  history 
are  inextricably  interwoven.  Most  text-books  now 
have  a  number  of  maps,  all  of  which  however  are 
by  no  means  faultless.  Good  wall-maps  may  be 
obtained  at  reasonable  prices ;  and  every  school 
should  have  at  least  one  good  historical  atlas.  The 
class  should  use  physical  maps,  as  well  as  those 
showing  political  and  national  divisions,  for  often 
the  simplest  and  most  evident  facts  with  which 
the  pupil  is  well  acquainted  need  to  be  forced 
sharply  upon  his  attention  in  connection  with 
history.  The  Nile,  the  Euphrates,  the  Tiber,  the 
Rhine,  the  Thames,  the  Mississippi,  the  Alps,  the 


96  Methods 

Pyrenees,  the  Alleghanies,  —  their  very  names  call 
up  to  the  mind  of  the  historical  scholar  troops  of 
facts  and  forces  affecting  the  progress  of  the  race 
and  moulding  the  destinies  of  nations.  The  pupils 
should  not  lose  sight  of  the  physical  causes  that 
have  acted  in  history  any  more  than  they  should 
ignore  the  human  causes ;  and  they  must  remember 
that,  although  history  deals  with  the  succession  of 
events,  there  is  always  a  place  relation  as  well  as  a 
time  relation.  As  new  meaning  is  given  to  geog- 
raphy when  physical  conditions  are  seen  in  relation 
with  human  life,  so  reality  is  added  to  historical 
occurrences  and  new  interest  is  awakened  in  his- 
torical facts  by  the  study  of  the  theatre  within 
which  men  acted  and  notable  events  took  place. 
"  Groupings  of  historical  figures  and  scenes  around 
geographical  centres  make  these  centres  instinct 
with  life  and  motion,  while  the  centres  themselves, 
binding  the  figures  and  scenes  together,  give  them 
a  new  permanence  and  solidity." l  The  careful 
study  of  physical  geography  and  of  historical 
geography  is  of  value,  therefore,  not  only  in 
bringing  out  the  nature  or  the  true  import  of  facts, 
but  in  helping  the  pupils  to  retain  information  be- 
cause they  see  natural  causes  and  relations,  and 
because  events  are  thus  made  to  appear  definite 
and  actual. 

1  Hinsdale,  How  to  Study  and  Teach  History,  99. 


Geography  97 

If  these  methods  are  to  be  followed, —  as  they 
must  be  if  history  is  to  be  a  study  of  high  educa- 
tional value,  —  books  for  reference  and  reading  are 
as  necessary  as  is  apparatus  for  efficient  work  in 
physics  or  chemistry.  Not  many  years  ago  all 
subjects  except  "  natural  philosophy  "  were  taught 
without  the  help  of  any  material  save  a  text-book 
for  each  pupil,  and  perhaps  a  few  dusty  cyclopae- 
dias often  deftly  concealed  in  a  closet  behind  the 
teacher's  desk.  Great  changes  have  been  made  ; 
nearly  all  schools  now  have  some  books,  but  even 
at  the  present  time  it  is  easier  to  get  five  thousand 
dollars  for  physical  and  chemical  laboratories  than 
five  hundred  dollars  for  reference  books  ;  and  even 
when  libraries  have  been  provided,  their  material 
is  sometimes  not  wisely  chosen,  and  they  are  often 
allowed  to  fall  behind  by  a  failure  to  purchase  new 
and  useful  literature  as  it  comes  out. 

The  library  should  be  the  centre  and  soul  of  all 
study  in  history  and  literature ;  no  vital  work  can 
be  carried  on  without  books  to  which  pupils  may 
have  ready  and  constant  access.  Without  these  op- 
portunities historical  work  is  likely  to  be  arid,  if  not 
unprofitable  ;  there  cannot  be  collateral  reading, 
or  written  work  of  the  most  valuable  sort,  or  study 
of  the  sources,  or  knowledge  of  illustrative  ma- 
terial. Even  a  small  expenditure  of  money  may 
change  the  dull  routine  of  historical  study  into 
H 


98  Methods 

a  voyage  of  pleasurable  discovery,  awakening  the 
interest,  the  enthusiasm,  and  the  whole  mental 
power  of  the  pupils.  No  school  is  so  poor  that 
something  cannot  be  done  in  the  way  of  collecting 
material. 

The  first  necessity  of  a  school  library  is  that 
it  be  accessible.  It  should  be  in  the  school  build- 
ing, open  during  the  whole  of  school  hours  and  as 
much  longer  as  possible  ;  it  should  be  furnished 
with  working  tables  and  provided  with  good  light, 
and  so  arranged  that  it  serves,  not  as  something 
helpful  outside  the  school,  but  as  the  source  and 
centre  of  inspiration,  to  which  the  classroom  work 
is  contributory.  The  books  should  be  freely  used, 
for  a  library  is  no  longer  considered  a  place  for 
the  preservation  and  concealment  of  books,  but  a 
centre  from  which  they  may  be  put  into  circula- 
tion, and  where  the  best  facilities  are  offered  for 
acquiring  information.  The  question  as  to  whether 
the  books  should  be  left  in  open  shelves  or  handed 
out  by  an  attendant  must  be  decided  of  course  by 
the  school  authorities,  in  light  of  all  the  circum- 
stances ;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
opportunity  to  touch  and  handle  the  volumes,  to 
glance  at  their  pages,  to  discover  the  subjects  of 
which  they  treat,  to  look,  as  it  were,  into  their 
faces,  is  of  great  value,  and  that  more  can  be 
learned  by  a  few  minutes  of  familiar  intercourse 


Libraries  99 

with  a  book  in  the  hand  than  by  many  inquiries  of 
an  attendant  or  by  anxious  searchings  in  a  cata- 
logue. The  fewer  the  barriers  and  obstacles  in 
the  way  the  better  will  be  the  results  ;  and  the 
more  will  the  pupil  be  tempted  to  refer  to  the 
authorities  or  to  read  the  great  masters  in  history 
and  literature,  an  acquaintance  with  whose  words, 
thoughts,  and  sentiments  constitutes  in  itself  no 
small  part  of  education. 

In  employing  the  library  for  historical  purposes, 
care  should  be  taken  to  teach  the  pupils  how  to  use 
intelligently  tables  of  contents  and  indexes,  and 
also  how  to  turn  to  their  account  the  library  cata- 
logues and  the  indexes  to  general  and  periodical 
literature.  The  teacher  will  remember  that  the 
habit  of  referring  to  authorities  to  settle  doubtful 
points  or  to  discover  additional  evidence  is  a  most 
important  part,  not  only  of  historical  training,  but 
of  the  outfit  of  an  educated  person,  and  that  wide 
reading  should  bring  breadth  of  view  and  also  a 
broadening  and  deepening  of  the  judgment. 

The  well-equipped  library  should  contain  (i) 
good  historical  atlases  and  atlases  of  modern 
geography ;  (2)  one  or  two  historical  handbooks, 
or  dictionaries  of  dates ;  (3)  an  ample  supply  of 
secondary  histories,  such  as  those  of  Holm, 
Mommsen,  Lecky,  Parkman ;  with  these  may  be 
classed,  as  especially  useful,  good,  interesting  bi- 


ioo  Methods 

ographies,  such  as  Dodge's  "  Alexander  the  Great," 
Stanhope's  "  Pitt " ;  (4)  there  should  certainly  be 
some  collections  of  sources,  many  of  which  are 
now  accessible  ;  and  some  of  the  recent  leaflets  and 
collections  of  extracts  of  primary  and  secondary 
material  will  be  found  of  service ;  (5)  a  good  ency- 
clopaedia and  one  or  two  annual  compendiums, 
such  as  the  various  political  almanacs. 


Sources 

THE  use  of  sources  in  secondary  work  is  now  a 
matter  of  so  much  importance,  that  it  seems  to 
demand  special  and  distinct  treatment.  We  believe 
in  the  proper  use  of  sources  for  proper  pupils,  with 
proper  guarantees  that  there  shall  also  be  secured 
a  clear  outline  view  of  the  whole  subject  studied ; 
but  we  find  ourselves  unable  to  approve  a  method 
of  teaching,  sometimes  called  the  "  source  method," 
in  which  pupils  have  in  their  hands  little  more  than 
a  series  of  extracts,  for  the  most  part  brief,  and 
not  very  closely  related.  The  difficulty  with  this 
system  is,  that  while  it  suggests  the  basis  of 
original  record  upon  which  all  history  rests,  on  the 
other  hand  it  expects  valuable  generalizations  from 
insufficient  bases.  Within  the  covers  of  one  book 
it  is  impossible  to  bring  together  one  hundredth  part 
of  the  material  which  any  careful  historical  writer 
would  examine  for  himself  before  coming  to  a  con- 
clusion ;  and  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  inexperi- 
enced and  immature  minds  can  form  correct  notions 
without  some  systematic  survey  of  the  field.  In- 
deed the  attempts  to  teach  history  wholly  from  the 


IO2  Sources 

sources  ignore  the  fact  that  the  actual  knowledge  of 
the  facts  of  history  in  the  minds  of  the  most  highly 
trained  teachers  of  history,  comes  largely  from  sec- 
ondary books ;  it  is  only  in  limited  fields,  where  a 
large  mass  of  material  can  be  examined  and  sifted, 
that  historians  and  teachers  can  safely  rely  for  their 
information  entirely  on  sources,  and  even  there  they 
find  it  useful  to  refer  to  the  secondary  work  of  other 
writers  for  new  points  of  view. 

The  first  essential,  then,  for  any  practical  use  of 
sources  by  pupils,  is  that  their  work  shall  be 
done  in  connection  with  a  good  text-book,  in  which 
the  sequence  and  relation  of  events  can  be  made 
clear.  The  aim  of  historical  study  in  the  second- 
ary school,  let  it  be  repeated,  is  the  training  of 
pupils,  not  so  much  in  the  art  of  historical  investi- 
gation as  in  that  of  thinking  historically.  Pupils 
should  be  led  to  grasp  facts  and  to  see  them  in 
relations,  for  one  who  has  been  taught  to  establish 
certain  facts  with  unerring  accuracy  may  still  be 
unable  to  understand  the  historical  significance  of 
those  facts. 

In  the  second  place,  we  disclaim  any  confidence 
in  "  investigation  "  by  pupils,  if  by  investigation 
is  meant  a  mental  process  of  the  same  order  as  that 
of  the  practised  historian  and  the  special  student 
of  a  limited  field,  or  of  the  teacher  preparing  ma- 
terial for  his  classes.  In  our  judgment,  sources 


Use  of  Text-Book  103 

are  not  intended  to  be  either  the  sole  or  the  princi- 
pal materials  for  school  study.  There  is,  indeed,  a 
close  analogy  between  the  proposed  processes  of 
historical  study  and  those  of  the  study  of  natural 
science.  In  physics,  for  example,  it  has  been 
thought  expedient  to  require  a  well-ordered  text- 
book in  connection  with  a  series  of  experiments; 
yet  physics  cannot  be  efficiently  taught  unless  the 
pupil  has  some  contact  with  materials,  not  because 
they  form  the  only  foundation  of  his  knowledge, 
but  because  he  learns  to  look  for  himself,  and  to 
understand  that  the  knowledge  which  he  receives 
at  second-hand  must  be  based  upon  patient  investi- 
gation by  somebody  else. 

By  the  study  of  properly  selected  materials,  the 
pupil  realizes  that  historical  characters  were  living 
persons,  and  he  learns  to  distinguish  between  them 
and  the  x  and  y  of  algebra  or  the  formulas  of 
physics.  When  one  reads  the  loving  letter  written 
from  before  Antioch  by  Count  Stephen  of  Blois 
some  eight  hundred  years  ago,1  in  which  he  charges 
his  wife  to  do  right  and  to  remember  her  duty  to  her 
children  and  her  vassals,  one  realizes  that  the  Cru- 
saders were  real  men,  imbued  with  many  of  the 
purposes,  hopes,  and  sentiments  with  which  men 
of  the  present  day  are  moved  and  influenced. 

1  Translated  in  Letters  of  the  Crusaders  {University  of  Pennsyl 
•vania  Translations  and  Reprints},  1-4. 


iO4  Sources 

The  use  of  sources  which  we  advocate  is,  there- 
fore, a  limited  contact  with  a  limited  body  of  mate- 
rials, an  examination  of  which  may  show  the  child 
the  nature  of  the  historical  process,  and  at  the  same 
time  may  make  the  people  and  events  of  bygone 
times  more  real  to  him.  We  believe  that  some 
acquaintance  with  sources  vitalizes  the  subject, 
and  thus  makes  it  easier  for  the  teacher  and  more 
stimulating  for  the  pupil.  But  all  sources  are  not 
of  equal  value  for  this  purpose  ;  some  of  those 
which  are  very  important  for  more  mature  students 
are  too  dry  and  unattractive  to  be  useful  for 
younger  persons.  John  Adams's  "  Discourses  of 
Davila  "  is  a  source,  though  thought  exceedingly 
dull  even  in  his  generation.  Abigail  Adams's 
letters  to  her  husband,  complaining  of  the  fall  of 
continental  currency,  are  equally  valuable  as 
sources,  and  much  more  interesting. 

Since  discrimination  in  the  selection  of  sources 
is  of  so  much  importance,  the  first  criterion  is,  that 
authorities  be  chosen  whose  authenticity  is  beyond 
dispute.  It  is  not  worth  while  to  introduce  chil- 
dren to  the  controversies  over  the  voyages  of  John 
and  Sebastian  Cabot ;  or  to  the  arguments  for  and 
against  the  truthfulness  of  John  Smith's  account  of 
his  rescue  by  Pocahontas ;  or  to  the  authorship  of 
the  letters  found  in  the  saddle-bags  of  Charles  I. 
There  is  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  an  abundance 


Limitations  105 

of  suggestive  sources,  about  the  value  of  which 
historians  will  agree  and  around  which  no  inter- 
minable controversy  is  waging.  Pains  should  also 
be  taken  to  recommend  the  sources  that  may 
reasonably  be  brought  within  the  knowledge  of 
pupils ;  it  is  of  no  use  to  refer  to  rarities  or  to 
texts  long  out  of  print. 

In  the  next  place,  few  documents,  in  the  usual 
significance  of  that  term,  are  very  useful  in  the 
schoolroom.  A  capitulary  of  Charlemagne,  Magna 
Charta,  a  colonial  charter,  or  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  may  with  careful  explanation 
be  made  clear;  but  it  is  difficult  to  make  them 
attractive.  The  growth  of  a  nation,  the  enlarge- 
ment of  its  political  ideas,  may  be  measurable  by 
young  intellects,  but  not  the  registration  of  that 
growth  in  great  political  documents.  And  yet 
even  documents  may  be  occasionally  used.  There 
seems  to  be  no  good  reason  for  merely  reading 
about  the  Declaration  of  Independence  without 
seeing  the  printed  instrument  itself,  or  talking 
about  the  Ordinance  of  1787  or  the  Proclamation 
of  Emancipation  without  knowledge  of  the  texts. 

There  is,  however,  a  large  body  of  material  of 
another  kind  which  is  as  trustworthy  as  constitu- 
tional documents  and  is  much  more  attractive. 
Such  are  books  of  travels,  which  from  Herodotus 
down  to  James  Bryce  have  been  one  of  the  most 


io6  Sources 

entertaining  and  suggestive  sources  on  the  social 
and  intellectual  phenomena  of  history.  Of  equal 
interest,  and  perhaps  of  greater  value,  are  the 
actual  journals  and  letters  of  persons  contemporary 
with  the  events  which  they  describe.  Such  are 
Cicero's  "  Epistles,"  Luther's  "  Letters,"  Pepys' 
"  Diary,"  Bradford's  "  History,"  and  the  more 
intimate  writings  of  statesmen  like  Henry  VIII. 
of  England  and  Henry  IV.  of  France,  Frederick 
the  Great,  Franklin,  Washington,  and  Gladstone. 
These  are  unfailing  sources  of  historical  informa- 
tion, and  they  give  in  addition  a  personal  and 
human  interest  to  the  subjects  which  they  illus- 
trate. 

In  dealing  with  young  minds  which  are  rapidly 
opening,  it  is  of  special  importance  to  choose 
books  or  extracts  which  have  a  literary  value. 
The  annals  of  the  race  are  founded  on  first-hand 
accounts  of  historical  events,  many  of  which  are 
written  in  such  a  fashion  as  to  be  worth  reading 
aside  from  their  historical  value.  Such  are,  for 
example,  Einhard's  "  Life  of  Charlemagne  "  ;  the 
naive  accounts  of  the  foundation  of  the  Swiss  Re- 
public in  1292  ;  the  journals  of  the  early  voyagers 
to  the  Western  world  ;  the  table-talk  of  Bismarck  ; 
the  farewell  letters  of  John  Brown ;  and  the  mem- 
oranda of  Lincoln's  few  brief  speeches.  Such 
material  used  in  schools  gives  part  of  the  training 


Topical  Work  107 

and  enjoyment  to  be  had  from  good  literature, 
and  at  the  same  time  furnishes  illustrations  that 
make  the  text-book  of  history  sparkle  with  human 
life. 

In  connection  with  topical  work,  the  pupils  may 
with  special  advantage  make  use  of  the  sources. 
To  the  child  such  work  is  as  fresh  as  though  it 
had  never  been  undertaken  by  any  other  mind. 
In  comparing  the  statements  of  various  sources 
and  arriving  at  a  conclusion  from  taking  them  to- 
gether, the  pupil  gets  a  valuable  training  of  judg- 
ment. He  must  not  suppose  that  he  is  making  a 
history,  or  that  his  results  are  comparable  with 
those  of  the  trained  historian ;  but  he  may  have 
an  intellectual  enjoyment  of  the  same  kind  as 
that  of  the  historical  writer.  The  committee  is 
fully  aware  of  the  difficulty  of  carrying  on  such 
methods  as  are  here  suggested  ;  they  require  advan- 
tageous circumstances  and  material  which  is  easily 
handled  and  with  which  the  teacher  has  decided 
familiarity.  As  has  been  pointed  out  above, 
written  work  must  not  be  the  only  or  even 
the  principal  employment  of  the  pupil,  but  in 
the  preparation  of  written  topics  much  may  be 
gained  by  dealing  with  sources,  if  a  sufficient 
variety  is  available.  Wherever  written  work  is 
required,  therefore,  it  is  desirable  to  have  some 
sources,  to  be  used  not  merely  for  help  in  writing 


io8  Sources 

but  for  reference.  In  this  way  the  pupil  may 
get  an  idea  of  the  difficulties  of  ascertaining  his- 
torical truth,  and  of  the  necessity  for  impartiality 
and  accuracy. 

Besides  the  sources  which  have  come  down  to 
us  in  written  form  and  are  reproduced  upon  the 
printed  page,  there  is  another  important  class  of  his- 
torical materials  which  is  of  great  assistance  in  giv- 
ing reality  to  the  past,  —  namely,  actual,  concrete 
remains,  such  as  exist  in  the  form  of  old  buildings, 
monuments,  and  the  contents  of  museums.  Many 
schools  have  direct  access  to  interesting  survivals 
of  this  sort,  while  the  various  processes  of  pictorial 
reproduction  have  placed  abundant  stores  of  such 
material  within  reach  of  every  teacher.  The  ex- 
cellent illustrations  of  many  recent  text-books  may 
be  supplemented  by  special  albums,  such  as  are 
used  in  French  and  German  schools,  and  by  the 
school's  own  collections  of  engravings  and  photo- 
graphs cut  from  magazines  or  procured  from 
dealers.1  Some  schools  have  also  provided  sets 

1  Selections  from  the  Perry  prints,  and  the  cheap  series  of  pho- 
tographic reproductions  issued  by  various  American  houses,  are 
always  available  at  a  very  moderate  price,  and  have  found  a  place 
in  many  schools.  Good  types  of  inexpensive  foreign  albums  are 
Seemann's  Kunsthistorische  Bilderbogen  and  the  Albums  Histo- 
riques  of  Parmentier  (Paris,  Hachette).  Holzel  in  Vienna  pub- 
lishes Langl's  Bilder  zur  Geschicfite,  a  set  of  sixty-two  wall  picturei 
of  the  great  structures  of  all  ages. 


Illustrative  109 

of  lantern  slides.  Of  course  in  order  to  entitle 
such  illustrations  to  serious  use  and  to  the  rank  of 
historical  sources  they  must  be  real  pictures, — 
actual  reproductions  of  buildings,  statues,  contem- 
porary portraits,  views  of  places,  etc.,  —  and  not 
inventions  of  modern  artists.  It  is  easy  to  make 
too  much  of  illustrations  and  thus  reduce  history 
to  a  series  of  dissolving  views ;  but  many  excellent 
teachers  have  found  the  judicious  use  of  pictures 
helpful  in  the  extreme,  not  merely  in  arousing 
interest  in  the  picturesque  aspects  of  the  subject, 
but  in  cultivating  the  historical  imagination  and  in 
giving  definiteness  and  vividness  to  the  pupil's 
general  ideas  of  the  past.  An  appeal  to  the  eye 
is  of  great  assistance  in  bringing  out  the  charac- 
teristic differences  between  past  and  present,  and 
thus  in  checking  that  tendency  to  project  the 
present  into  the  past  which  is  one  of  the  most 
serious  obstacles  to  sound  views  of  history.  The 
chief  danger  in  the  use  of  pictorial  material  lies  in 
giving  too  much  of  it  instead  of  dwelling  at  length 
on  a  few  carefully  chosen  examples. 

To  sum  up  this  part  of  the  subject,  the  com- 
mittee looks  upon  sources  as  adjuncts  to  good  text- 
book work,  as  something  which  may  be  used  for  a 
part  of  the  collateral  reading  and  may  also  form 
the  basis  of  some  of  the  written  work.  Such  use 
of  material,  with  proper  discrimination  in  choosing 


no  Sources 

the  sources,  will  add  to  the  pleasure  of  the  pupil, 
and  will  by  sharpness  of  outline  fix  in  his  mind 
events  and  personalities  that  will  slip  away  if  he 
uses  the  text-books  alone. 


Intensive  Study 


THAT  we  have  not  dwelt  at  any  length  upon  the 
desirability  of  devoting  time  to  what  is  termed  by 
the  Madison  Conference  "  intensive  study,"  is 
because  we  do  not  see  how  in  many  schools  suf- 
ficient time  can  be  given  to  such  work,  and  not 
because  we  advise  against  the  adoption  of  that 
plan  of  work  if  there  is  time  and  opportunity  in 
the  school  course.  Indeed,  we  believe  that  the 
careful  examination  of  a  very  limited  period  is 
highly  beneficial.  By  intensive  study  we  do  not 
mean  original  work  in  the  sense  in  which  the  word 
"  original "  is  used  in  advanced  college  classes  ; 
we  mean  simply  the  careful  and  somewhat  pro- 
longed study  of  a  short  period.  The  shorter  the 
period  and  the  longer  the  time  devoted  to  it, 
the  more  intensive  the  study  will  be.  Perhaps  in 
the  courses  in  English  and  American  history,  time 
may  be  found  to  study  one  or  two  periods  with 
special  care  and  attention,  so  that  the  pupil  may 
have  exceptional  opportunities  to  read  the  best 
secondary  authorities,  and  even  to  examine  pri- 

in 


H2  Intensive  Study 

mary  material.  For  example,  in  English  history 
it  may  prove  possible  to  give  two  or  three  weeks, 
instead  of  two  or  three  days,  to  a  study  of  the  im- 
portant events  and  meanings  of  the  Common- 
wealth, or  to  the  ideas  and  progress  of  the  whole 
Puritan  movement.  In  American  history  it  may 
be  wise  to  study  for  a  considerable  time  such  sub- 
jects as  the  causes  of  the  Revolution,  or  the  Con- 
federation and  the  formation  of  the  Constitution, 
or  the  chief  events  of  the  decade  from  1850  to 
1860.  When  this  plan  of  selecting  a  period  or 
a  topic  for  intensive  examination  is  possible,  the 
pupils  can  gain  great  advantage  by  the  oppor- 
tunity of  delving  deeper  into  the  subject  than  is 
possible  when  all  parts  of  the  work  are  studied 
with  equal  thoroughness  or  superficiality :  they 
can  read  more  in  the  secondary  material,  can  get 
a  peep  at  the  sources,  and  thus  come  to  a  fuller 
appreciation  of  what  history  is  and  how  it  is  writ- 
ten. Only  when  good  working  facilities  are  at 
hand,  however,  and  the  teacher,  knowing  the  ma- 
terial, has  time  to  guide  his  pupils  and  give  them 
constant  aid  and  attention,  will  this  plan  prove 
very  helpful. 


The  Need  of  Trained  Teachers 

IF  history  is  to  take  and  hold  its  proper  place  in 
the  school  curriculum,  it  must  be  in  the  hands  of 
teachers  who  are  thoroughly  equipped  for  the  task 
of  bringing  out  its  educational  value.  It  is  still 
not  very  unusual  to  find  that  history  is  taught,  if 
such  a  word  is  appropriate,  by  those  who  have 
made  no  preparation,  and  that  classes  are  some- 
times managed  —  we  hesitate  to  say  instructed  — 
by  persons  who  do  not  profess  either  to  be  pre- 
pared or  to  take  interest  in  the  subject.  In  one 
good  school,  for  example,  history  a  short  time  ago 
was  turned  over  to  the  professor  of  athletics,  not 
because  he  knew  history,  but  apparently  in  order 
to  fill  up  his  time.  In  another  school  a  teacher 
was  seen  at  work  who  evidently  did  not  have 
the  first  qualifications  for  the  task ;  when  the  ex- 
aminer inquired  why  this  teacher  was  asked  to 
teach  history  when  she  knew  no  history,  the  an- 
swer was  that  she  did  not  know  anything  else. 
As  long  as  other  subjects  in  the  course  are  given 
to  specialists,  while  history  is  distributed  here  and 
i  113 


114  Trained  Teachers 

there  to  fill  up  interstices,  there  can  be  no  great 
hope  for  its  advancement.  Fortunately,  however, 
this  condition  of  things  is  disappearing  as  history 
gradually  finds  its  way  to  a  place  beside  such  sub- 
jects as  Latin  and  mathematics,  which  claim  a  pre- 
scriptive right  to  first  consideration. 

Doubtless  to  teach  history  properly  is  a  difficult 
task.  It  requires  not  only  wide  information  and 
accurate  knowledge,  but  a  capacity  to  awaken 
enthusiasm  and  to  bring  out  the  inner  meanings 
of  a  great  subject.  Accuracy  and  defmiteness 
must  be  inculcated  in  the  pupil,  and  he  must  be 
led  to  think  carefully  and  soberly  ;  but  he  must 
also  be  tempted  to  range  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
text  and  to  give  rein  to  his  imagination.  Pupils 
often  complain  that,  while  in  other  studies  a  lesson 
can  be  thoroughly  mastered,  in  history  every  topic 
seems  exhaustless.  Teachers  are  constantly  con- 
fronted with  the  same  difficulties.  So  many 
problems  arise  and  demand  attention ;  so  diffi- 
cult is  it  to  hold  the  pupil  to  definite  facts,  and 
yet  help  him  to  see  that  he  is  studying  a  scene  in 
the  great  drama  of  human  life  which  has  its  per- 
petual exits  and  entrances ;  so  hard  a  task  is  it  to 
stimulate  the  imagination  while  one  is  seeking  to 
cultivate  the  reason  and  the  judgment,  that  the 
highest  teaching  power  is  necessary  to  complete 
success. 


Knowledge  115 

The  first  requisite  for  good  teaching  is  know- 
ledge. The  teacher's  duty  is  not  simply  to  see  that 
the  pupils  have  learned  a  given  amount,  or  that 
they  understand  the  lesson,  as  one  uses  the  word 
"  understand  "  when  speaking  of  a  demonstration 
in  geometry  or  an  experiment  in  physics.  His 
task  is  to  bring  out  the  real  meaning  and  import 
of  what  is  learned  by  adding  illustrations,  showing 
causes  and  suggesting  results,  to  select  the  impor- 
tant and  to  pass  over  the  unimportant,  to  empha- 
size essentials,  and  to  enlarge  upon  significant  facts 
and  ideas.  A  person  with  a  meagre  information 
cannot  have  a  wide  outlook;  he  cannot  see  the 
relative  importance  of  things  unless  he  actually 
knows  them  in  their  relations. 

But  knowledge  of  facts  alone  is  not  enough.  In 
historical  work  pupils  and  teacher  are  constantly 
engaged  in  using  books.  These  books  the  teacher 
must  know ;  he  must  know  the  periods  which  they 
cover,  their  methods  of  treatment,  their  trustworth- 
iness, their  attractiveness,  their  general  utility  for 
the  purposes  of  young  students.  He  must  have 
skill  in  handling  books  and  in  gleaning  from  them 
the  information  which  he  is  seeking,  because  it  is 
just  this  skill  which  he  is  trying  to  give  to  his 
pupils.  No  one  would  seriously  think  of  putting 
in  charge  of  a  class  in  manual  training  a  person 
who  had  himself  never  shoved  a  plane  or  measured 


Ii6  Trained  Teachers 

a  board.  To  turn  over  a  class  in  history  to  be  in- 
structed  by  a  person,  who  is  not  acquainted  with 
the  tools  of  the  trade  and  has  had  no  practice  in 
manipulating  them,  is  an  equal  absurdity. 

A  successful  teacher  must  have  more  than  mere 
accurate  information  and  professional  knowledge. 
He  needs  to  have  a  living  sympathy  with  the  tale 
which  he  tells.  He  must  know  how  to  bring 
out  the  dramatic  aspects  of  his  story.  He  must 
know  how  to  awaken  the  interest  and  atten- 
tion of  his  pupils,  who  will  always  be  alert  and 
eager  if  they  feel  that  they  are  learning  of  the  actual 
struggles  and  conflicts  of  men  who  had  like  pas- 
sions with  ourselves.  Though  stores  of  dates  and 
names  must  be  at  the  teacher's  command,  these  are 
not  enough.  He  must  have  had  his  own  imagina- 
tion fired  and  his  enthusiasm  kindled ;  he  must 
know  the  sources  of  historical  knowledge  and  the 
springs  of  historical  inspiration ;  he  must  know  the 
literature  of  history  and  be  able  to  direct  his  pupils 
to  stirring  passages  in  the  great  historical  masters ; 
he  must  know  how  to  illumine  and  brighten  the 
page  by  readings  from  literature  and  by  illustra- 
tions from  art. 

"  It  were  far  better,"  says  Professor  Dicey,  "  as 
things  now  stand,  to  be  charged  with  heresy,  or 
even  to  be  found  guilty  of  petty  larceny,  than  to  fall 
under  the  suspicion  of  lacking  historical-minded- 


Point  of  View  117 

ness,  or  of  questioning  the  universal  validity  of  the 
historical  method."  To  cultivate  historical-minded- 
ness,  to  teach  pupils  to  think  historically  and  to 
approach  facts  with  the  historical  spirit,  —  this  is 
the  chief  object  of  instruction  in  any  field  of  his- 
tory. But  unless  the  teacher  has  had  practice  in 
dealing  with  facts,  unless  he  has  acquired  per- 
spective, unless  he  has  become  historical-minded 
and  knows  himself  what  the  historical  method  is, 
he  cannot  instruct  his  pupils.  These  character- 
istics cannot  be  absorbed  from  a  text-book  in  an 
hour  or  two  before  the  recitation ;  they  are  the 
products  of  time  and  toil. 

Possibly  the  day  is  far  distant  when  all  teachers 
in  this  country  will  be  prepared  for  their  duties  by 
a  long  course  of  training  such  as  is  required  of  a 
teacher  in  European  schools ;  but  there  are  a  few 
evidences  that  this  time  is  slowly  approaching. 
Beyond  all  question,  some  of  the  best  teachers  in 
our  secondary  schools  are  almost  wholly  self- 
trained  ;  some  of  them  are  not  college  graduates. 
But  these  exceptions  do  not  prove  that  advanced 
collegiate  training  and  instruction  are  undesirable. 
In  teaching  a  vital  subject  like  history,  much  de- 
pends upon  the  personality  of  the  teacher,  upon  his 
force,  insight,  tact,  sympathy,  upon  qualities  that 
cannot  be  imparted  by  the  university  courses  or 
by  prolonged  research.  Though  all  this  be  true, 


n8  Trained  Teachers 

every  teacher  should  have  had  some  instruction  in 
methods  of  teaching,  and  should  have  learned  from 
precept  what  are  the  essentials  of  historical  study 
and  historical  thinking;  and  —  what  is  of  much 
greater  importance  —  he  should  have  so  worked 
that  he  knows  himself  what  historical  facts  are 
and  how  they  are  to  be  interpreted  and  arranged. 
The  highly  successful  teacher  in  any  field  of  work 
needs  to  be  a  student  as  well  as  a  teacher,  to  be  in 
touch  with  the  subject  as  a  growing,  developing, 
and  enlarging  field  of  human  knowledge. 


College   Entrance   Requirements1 

ANY  consideration  of  college  entrance  require- 
ments presents  many  difficulties ;  but  probably  no 
field  of  work  offers  greater  problems  than  does  that 
of  history,  because  the  schools  have  no  common 
understanding  as  to  the  amount  of  history  that 
should  be  offered  in  the  curriculum,  and  because  the 
universities  differ  materially  in  their  requirements. 
The  first  fundamental  fact  to  be  remembered  is 
that  a  very  large  percentage  of  secondary  pupils 
do  not  go  to  college,  and  that  in  a  very  great 
majority  of  schools  the  courses  must  be  adapted 
primarily  for  the  pupils  who  finish  their  study  with 

1  In  1896,  the  National  Educational  Association  appointed  a 
committee  to  consider  the  subject  of  college  entrance  requirements, 
and  to  report  a  scheme  of  uniform  requirements.  At  the  request 
of  that  committee,  the  American  Historical  Association  appointed 
the  Committee  of  Seven  to  draft  a  scheme  of  college  entrance  re- 
quirements in  history.  The  portion  of  our  report  that  here  follows 
was  prepared  with  that  purpose  in  mind  ;  and  substantially  similar 
recommendations  have  already  been  made  to  Superintendent  Night- 
ingale, as  chairman  of  the  committee  of  the  National  Educational 
Association. 

"9 


I2O        Entrance  Requirements 

the  secondary  school.  It  is  often  asserted  that  the 
course  which  fits  pupils  for  college  is  equally  well 
adapted  to  the  uses  of  those  who  do  not  go  to 
college.  We  do  not  care  to  argue  this  question, 
although  we  doubt  very  much  if  it  be  true  that  the 
requirements  laid  down  for  entrance  to  college, 
requirements  which  still  bear  the  mark  of  the  old 
regime,  are  likely  to  furnish  the  best  equipment  for 
the  work  and  play  of  everyday  life.  Whether 
this  be  true  or  not,  it  is  certainly  wrong  to  shape 
secondary  courses  primarily  with  a  view  to  college 
needs.  In  the  great  majority  of  schools  the  cur- 
riculum must  be  prepared  with  the  purpose  of 
developing  boys  and  girls  into  young  men  and 
women,  not  with  the  purpose  of  fitting  them  to 
meet  entrance  examinations  or  of  filling  them  with 
information  which  some  faculty  thinks  desirable  as 
a  forerunner  of  college  work.  Many  of  the  acade- 
mies and  some  of  the  high  schools  can  without 
much  trouble  meet  the  artificial  requirements  of 
the  colleges;  but  a  great  majority  of  the  high 
schools  and  some  of  the  academies  have  great  dif- 
ficulty ;  and  it  is  an  almost  impossible  task  so  to 
arrange  the  programme  that  pupils  can  be  fitted 
for  more  than  one  institution.1 

1  For  example,  in  a  catalogue  of  a  good  high  school,  —  a  school 
rather  large  than  small,  and  well-equipped  with  teachers,  —  we 
find  these  typical  statements :  that  a  pupil  may  prepare  in  that  school 


Fitting  Schools  121 

For  this  reason  we  welcome  the  efforts  of  the 
committee  of  the  National  Educational  Associa- 
tion to  simplify  and  unify  college  entrance  re- 
quirements. We  believe,  however,  that  the  first 
requisite  of  a  successful  accomplishment  of  this 
task  is  a  recognition  of  the  fact  that  the  great 
majority  of  schools  are  not  fitting-schools  for 
college ;  and  it  seems  to  us  that  any  rigid  and 
inelastic  regime,  which  does  not  take  into  consid- 
eration the  fact  that  schools  are  working  in  many 
different  environments  and  are  subject  to  different 
limitations  and  conditions,  cannot  be  very  widely 
accepted  or  prove  useful  for  any  length  of  time. 
We  venture  to  suggest,  therefore,  that  in  any 
effort  to  simplify  the  situation  by  relieving  the 
schools  from  the  burden  of  trying  to  meet  college 
requirements,  two  things  are  essential ;  one  is,  that 
the  fundamental  scope  and  purpose  of  the  major 
part  of  the  secondary  schools  be  regarded ;  the 
other,  that  such  elasticity  be  allowed  that  schools 
may  fit  pupils  for  college  and  yet  adapt  them- 
selves to  some  extent  to  local  environment  and 
local  needs.1 

for  one  of  several  universities,  but  that  at  the  beginning  of  the 
second  year  he  should  know  what  he  intends  to  do  ;  and  that  a 
failure  to  choose  accurately  in  any  one  semester  involves  the  loss 
of  a  year. 

1  It  does  not  seem  wise,  even  if  it  be  possible,  to  outline  the 
same  rigid  entrance  requirements  for  the  University  of  California, 


122       Entrance  Requirements 

We  feel  justified,  therefore,  as  students  and 
teachers,  in  marking  out  what  we  think  is  the 
best  curriculum  in  history,  in  discussing  the  edu- 
cational value  of  the  study,  in  emphasizing  the 
thought  that  history  is  peculiarly  appropriate  in 
a  secondary  course,  which  is  fashioned  with  the 
thought  of  preparing  boys  and  girls  for  the  duties 
of  daily  life  and  intelligent  citizenship,  and  in 
dwelling  upon  methods  for  bringing  out  the  peda- 
gogical effect  of  historical  work.  It  seems  to  us 
that,  in  consideration  of  the  value  and  importance 
of  historical  work,  and  in  light  of  the  fact  that 
so  many  thousands  of  pupils  are  now  engaged  in 
historical  study,  the  colleges  should  be  ready  to 
admit  to  their  list  of  requirements  a  liberal  amount 
of  history  ;  but  we  do  not  feel  that  we  should  seek 
to  lay  down  hard-and-fast  entrance  requirements  in 
history  and  ask  the  colleges  or  the  committee  of 
the  National  Educational  Association  to  declare  in 
favor  of  an  inflexible  regime. 

For  convenience  of  statement  we  have  adopted, 
in  the  recommendations  which  follow,  the  term 
"  unit "  ;  by  one  unit  we  mean  either  one  year  of 
historical  work  wherein  the  study  is  given  five 

University  of  Kansas,  University  of  North  Carolina,  Yale,  Har- 
vard, Tulane,  and  a  hundred  others.  This  policy  would  mean  that 
secondary  schools  everywhere  throughout  the  country  must  dis- 
regard local  conditions  and  yield  to  an  outside  force. 


Recommendations  123 

times  per  week,  or  two  years  of  historical  work 
wherein  the  study  is  given  three  times  per  week. 
We  have  thought  it  best  to  take  into  consideration 
the  fact  that  different  colleges  have  now  not  only 
different  requirements,  but  also  entirely  different 
methods  of  framing  and  proposing  requirements. 
It  has  not  seemed  wise,  therefore,  to  outline  his- 
torical courses  on  the  supposition  that  all  colleges 
would  at  once  conform  to  a  uniform  arrange- 
ment. 

1.  If  a  college  or  a  scientific  school  has  a  sys- 
tem of  complete  options  in  college  entrance  re- 
quirements, that  is,  if  it  accepts  a  given  number  of 
years'  work,  or  units,  without  prescribing  specific 
subjects  of  study  (as  at  Leland  Stanford  Univer- 
sity), we  recommend  that  four  units  in  history  be 
accepted  as  an  equivalent  for  a  like  amount  of 
work  in  other  subjects.     Likewise,  that  one,  two, 
or  three  units  in  history  be  accepted. 

2.  If  a  college  or  a  scientific  school  requires  a 
list  of  certain  prescribed  studies,  and  also  demands 
additional  subjects,  to  be  chosen  out  of  an  optional 
list  (as   at    Harvard   University),  we   recommend 
that  one  unit  of  history  be  placed  on  the  list  of 
definitely  prescribed  studies,  and  that  one,  two,  or 
three  units  of  history  be  placed  among  the  optional 
studies. 

3.  If    a  college  or  a  scientific  school  has  rigid 


124       Entrance  Requirements 

requirements  without  options  (as  at  Yale  College 
and  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School),  we  recommend 
that  at  least  one  unit  of  history  be  required  for 
entrance. 

These  recommendations  do  not  seem  to  us  un- 
reasonable, and  we  do  not  believe  that  their  adop- 
tion would  impose  any  burden  upon  college  or 
preparatory  schools.  If  the  traditional  requirements 
in  other  subjects  need  to  be  diminished  in  order  to 
allow  one  unit  of  history  in  any  regime  of  rigid 
requirements,  we  do  not  think  that  such  diminution 
is  unwise  in  light  of  the  fact  that  history  is  now 
generally  studied,  and  that  the  training  obtained 
from  historical  work  is  an  essential  of  good  sec- 
ondary education.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  state- 
ment which  follows  (under  4),  that  we  do  not 
recommend  any  particular  field  or  period  of  his- 
tory as  preferable  to  all  others  for  the  purpose 
of  such  requirements;  to  constitute  this  unit  any 
one  of  the  periods  or  blocks  of  history  previously 
mentioned  may  be  selected. 

4.  Where  a  college  has  several  distinct  courses 
leading  to  different  degrees,  and  has  different 
groups  of  preparatory  studies,  each  group  pre- 
paring for  one  of  the  college  courses  (as  at  the 
University  of  Michigan),  the  use  to  be  made  of 
history  requires  more  detailed  exposition.  In  one 
of  these  preparatory  courses  the  ancient  languages 


Units  125 

receive  chief  attention  ;  in  a  second,  a  modern 
language  is  substituted  for  one  of  the  ancient  Ian- 
guages ;  in  a  third,  the  chief  energy  is  devoted  to 
natural  sciences ;  in  a  fourth,  main  stress  is  laid 
upon  history  and  English  language  and  literature. 
The  general  recommendations  given  above  will  aid 
somewhat  in  outlining  preparatory  courses  in  his- 
tory when  such  definite  routes  for  admission  to 
college  are  marked  out :  — 

A.  We  believe  that  in  each  preparatory  course 
there  should  be  at  least  one  unit  of  history.  This 
recommendation  means  that  classical  students 
should  have  at  least  one  full  year  of  historical 
work.  A  course  which  purports  to  deal  with 
the  "  humanities "  cannot  afford  to  be  without 
one  year's  work  in  a  study  whose  sole  theme  is 
humanity.  When  four  years  are  given  to  Latin, 
two  or  more  to  Greek,  two  or  three  to  mathe- 
matics, one,  or  perchance  two,  to  science,  some 
room  should  be  found  for  history,  even  if  the  time 
given  to  other  studies  be  diminished.  If  we  take 
for  granted  the  fact  that  the  great  majority  of  sec- 
ondary pupils  do  not  go  to  college,  can  we  declare 
that  they  should  go  out  into  life  with  no  knowledge 
of  the  humanities  save  that  acquired  by  the  study 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin  tongues  ? 

To  decide  what  field  of  history  should  be  chosen 
is  a  matter  of  considerable  difficulty.  We  believe 


126       Entrance  Requirements 

it  desirable  that  pupils  should  know  the  life  and 
thought  of  Greece  and  Rome  and  the  development 
of  their  civilization  ;  that  they  should  study  the 
great  facts  of  European  history  after  the  downfall 
of  the  Roman  Empire;  that  they  should  have 
some  knowledge  of  how  England  grew  to  be  a 
great  empire  and  English  liberty  developed;  and 
that  they  should  come  to  know  their  own  political 
surroundings  by  studying  American  history  and 
government.  We  hesitate,  therefore,  to  recom- 
mend that  any  one  particular  field  be  chosen  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  rest;  and  yet  we  think  that  far 
better  educational  results  can  be  secured  by  de- 
voting a  year  to  a  limited  period  than  by  attempt- 
ing to  cover  the  history  of  the  world  in  that  length 
of  time.  We  believe  that  it  is  more  important 
that  pupils  should  acquire  knowledge  of  what  his- 
tory is  and  how  it  should  be  studied  than  that  they 
should  cover  any  particular  field. 

Perhaps  it  is  not  impossible,  in  connection  with 
the  study  of  Greek  and  Latin,  to  pay  such  atten- 
tion to  the  growth  of  Greece  and  Rome  that  the 
pupils  may  be  led  to  an  appreciation  of  the  char- 
acter and  essential  nature  of  ancient  civilization. 
This  is  one  of  the  great  ends  of  historical  work ; 
and  if  the  humanities  can  thus  be  humanized, 
there  will  be  less  need  of  prescribing  Greek  or 
Roman  history  as  a  distinct  subject  for  classical 


Various  Courses  127 

students,1  and  some  other  historical  field  may 
then  be  chosen.  We  cannot  be  sure,  however, 
that  such  methods  of  teaching  the  classics  will 
prevail;  and  we  must  content  ourselves  with 
recommending  one  of  the  four  blocks  or  periods 
which  are  marked  out  in  the  earlier  portions  of 
this  paper,  without  designating  any  particular 
one. 

B.  The  secondary  course,  sometimes  called  the 
Latin  course,  in  which  a  modern  language  takes 
the   place   of  Greek,    presents   nearly   the    same 
problems  as   the   classical   course.      It  does   not 
afford   much  time  for  the  study  of    history  ;  we 
therefore  recommend  that  some  one  of  the   four 
blocks  mentioned  above  be  selected. 

C.  In  the  scientific  secondary  course  more  op- 
portunity for  historical  study  is  often  allowed,  and 
here   two    units   of    history    may   be   given.      At 
least  one  of  them  will  naturally  be  a  modern  field, 
and   yet  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  highly  desir- 
able that  scientific  pupils  should  by  the  study  of 
ancient  history  obtain  something    of   the  culture 
which  is  not  wrongly  supposed  to  come  from  the 
study  of  classical  civilization. 

1  That  the  desirability  of  such  a  method  is  recognized  by  many 
classical  teachers  is  shown,  for  example,  by  the  paper  by  Professor 
Clifford  Moore  on  How  to  Enrich  the  Classical  Course,  published 
in  the  School  Review,  September,  1898. 


128      Entrance  Requirements 

D.  The  fourth  secondary  course,  commonly 
called  the  English  course,  should  have  history  for 
its  backbone,  inasmuch  as  it  is  a  study  peculiarly 
capable  of  being  continued  throughout  the  four 
years,  and  of  offering  that  opportunity  for  con- 
tinuous development  which  the  classical  pupil 
obtains  from  the  prolonged  study  of  Latin.  We 
strongly  advise  that  sustained  effort  be  devoted  to 
history  in  order  that  this  course  may  have  a  certain 
consistency  and  unity.  There  are  already  schools 
that  offer  history  for  four  years,  and  give  four  full 
units  consisting  substantially  of  the  four  blocks 
we  have  outlined.  If  the  four  full  units  can- 
not be  given,  it  may  be  well  to  offer  history  only 
three  times  a  week  in  one  of  the  four  years.  If 
only  three  years  can  be  devoted  to  the  study,  one  of 
the  four  blocks  must,  as  we  have  already  said,  be 
omitted,  or  two  fields  must  be  compressed  in  some 
such  manner  as  that  suggested  in  the  earlier 
portion  of  this  report.1 

The  general  recommendations  under  this  head 
may  then  be  summed  up  as  follows :  (a)  for  the 
classical  course,  one  unit  of  history,  to  consist 
of  one  of  the  four  blocks  previously  mentioned ; 
(b)  for  the  Latin  course,  the  same ;  (c)  for  the  sci- 
entific course,  two  units  consisting  of  any  two  of 
the  blocks  ;  (d)  for  the  English  course,  three  units 

1  See  above,  p.  43. 


Minimum  129 

consisting  of  any  three  of  the  blocks,  or  consisting 
of  two  blocks  and  a  combination  of  two  others. 
We  strongly  recommend  that  four  years  of  history 
be  given  in  this  course,  in  order  to  make  history 
one  of  the  central  subjects. 

It  should  be  said  in  conclusion  that,  in  demand- 
ing but  one  unit  of  history  as  the  minimum  require- 
ment for  entrance  to  a  college  or  a  scientific  school, 
the  committee  does  not  wish  to  be  understood  as 
expressing  its  approval  of  this  amount  as  an  ade- 
quate course  in  history  for  secondary  schools.  In 
this  portion  of  the  report  we  have  been  obliged  to 
work  within  the  limits  of  the  systems  of  entrance 
requirements  that  now  prevail,  and  to  frame 
recommendations  that  may  be  adapted  to  existing 
conditions ;  but  we  do  not  believe  that  a  single 
unit  of  history  constitutes  a  sufficient  course, 
viewed  with  reference  either  to  the  relative  impor- 
tance of  the  subject,  or  to  the  possibility  of  realiz- 
ing the  aims  of  historical  instruction  within  the 
time  that  would  thus  be  at  the  teacher's  disposal. 
The  arguments  for  the  necessity  of  a  comprehen- 
sive and  substantial  course  in  history  have  been 
presented  at  length  in  the  earlier  sections  of  this 
report ;  and  though  it  may  not  at  present  be  feasi- 
ble for  every  college  to  require  more  than  one  unit 
of  history,  the  committee  believes  that  two  units 
should  constitute  the  minimum  amount  offered  in 


130       Entrance  Requirements 

any  school,  and  it  maintains  that  a  still  more 
extended  course  in  history  has  claims  quite  equal 
to  those  that  may  be  urged  on  behalf  of  any  other 
study  in  the  secondary  curriculum. 

Entrance  Examinations 

One  subject  connected  with  college  entrance 
requirements  has  peculiar  importance  in  connec- 
tion with  the  study  of  history,  namely,  that  of 
entrance  examinations.  Higher  institutions  that 
admit  students  on  the  basis  of  certificates  need 
have  no  administrative  difficulty  in  giving  large 
recognition  to  history  as  a  preparatory  subject ; 
but  in  colleges  and  universities  that  can  be  entered 
only  after  passing  examinations,  the  problem  is 
somewhat  different.  As  has  been  emphasized  else- 
where in  this  report,  the  utility  of  historical  study 
lies  not  only  in  the  acquisition  of  certain  important 
facts,  but  in  great  measure  in  its  indirect  results  in 
training  the  powers  of  discrimination  and  judg- 
ment ;  it  will  often  happen  that  pupils  who  have 
profited  largely  from  their  study  of  history  will, 
especially  after  two  or  three  years  have  elapsed, 
show  surprising  lacuna  in  their  stores  of  historical 
information.  While  a  course  in  history  should  be 
progressive  and  build  steadily  upon  what  has  gone 
before,  one  stage  does  not  depend  so  immediately 


Examinations  131 

upon  the  preceding,  and  involve  so  persistent  a 
review  of  earlier  work,  as  is  the  case  in  language 
and  mathematics ;  and  besides,  growth  in  power 
of  historical  thinking  is  much  harder  to  measure 
than  progress  in  mathematical  knowledge  or  in 
linguistic  facility.  These  difficulties  are  present  in 
some  degree,  even  when  the  candidate  is  examined 
on  work  done  in  history  in  the  last  year  of  the 
secondary  school ;  but  they  become  exceedingly 
serious  when  the  subject  has  been  studied  some 
years  before,  or  when  the  course  in  history  covers 
two,  three,  or  four  years  of  the  period  of  secondary 
instruction. 

The  remedy,  in  our  opinion,  lies,  not  in  the  ex- 
clusion or  unnatural  restriction  of  history  as  a  sub- 
ject for  entrance,  but  in  the  reform  of  methods  of 
examination  in  history;  if  the  present  system  of 
entrance  examination  does  not  —  and  it  generally 
does  not  —  properly  test  the  qualifications  of  can- 
didates in  history,  it  is  time  to  consider  how  it  may 
be  changed.  Certainly  nothing  has  done  more  to 
discredit  history  as  a  subject  for  college  entrance 
than  the  setting  of  papers  which  demand  no  more 
preparation  than  a  few  weeks'  cram.  The  sug- 
gestions which  follow  are  offered  in  the  hope,  not 
that  they  will  afford  a  final  solution  of  the  problem, 
but  that  they  may  prove  helpful  in  bringing  about 
a  more  just  and  adequate  system  of  examinations 


132       Entrance  Requirements 

in  history.  The  complete  adoption  ot  them  will 
naturally  involve  a  larger  allotment  of  time  to  his- 
tory than  is  now  given  in  examination  schedules, 
and  will  impose  a  heavier  burden  upon  those  to 
whose  lot  the  reading  of  papers  in  history  falls ; 
but  it  is  not  likely  that  the  demands  on  time  and 
energy  will  prove  greater  than  in  other  well-recog- 
nized admission  subjects,  and  it  is  not  unreason- 
able to  expect  college  authorities  to  make  suitable 
provision  in  these  regards. 

The  main  element  in  entrance  examinations  in 
history  must  probably  continue  to  be  the  writ- 
ten paper,  but  this  should  be  set  with  the  idea 
of  testing  to  some  extent  the  candidate's  ability 
to  use  historical  material,  as  well  as  his  know- 
ledge of  important  facts.  The  information  ques- 
tions should  not  demand  the  simple  reproduction 
of  the  statement  of  the  text,  but  should  in  large 
measure  be  so  framed  as  to  require  the  grouping  of 
facts  in  a  different  form  from  that  followed  in  the 
books  recommended  for  preparation.  There  should 
also  be  questions  involving  some  power  of  discrimi- 
nation and  some  use  of  legitimate  comparison  on 
the  part  of  the  candidate.  It  is  not  to  be  expected 
that  skill  in  utilizing  historical  material  v/ill  be  pres- 
ent in  a  high  degree  in  the  candidate  for  admissi  ^>n 
to  college,  but  the  student  who  has  learned  how  to 
handle  books  and  to  extract  information  from  them 


Proper  Tests  133 

in  the  course  of  his  secondary  studies  has  the  right, 
and  the  ability,  to  make  this  knowledge  count  for 
something  toward  college  entrance.  As  suitable 
tests  we  may  suggest  comment  on  carefully  chosen 
brief  extracts  from  simple  sources  or  modern  works, 
analysis  or  discussion  of  more  extended  passages, 
supplemented  perhaps  by  outline  maps  or  concrete 
illustrations,  —  anything,  in  short,  that  will  show 
the  student's  capacity  of  taking  up  a  fresh  ques- 
tion in  a  way  that  indicates  some  development  of 
the  historical  sense.  Naturally,  attainments  in  this 
direction  will  be  expected  chiefly  of  those  who  pre- 
sent history  as  an  additional  option. 

Doubtless  to  many  these  tests  will  appear  suffi- 
cient ;  but  it  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  a 
written  paper,  even  when  the  questions  have  been 
prepared  with  great  care,  cannot  yield  such  deci- 
sive results  in  history  as  it  can,  for  example,  in  a 
subject  like  English  composition.  The  examiner 
should  always  have  an  opportunity  —  and  par- 
ticularly in  doubtful  cases  —  of  supplementing  by 
other  means  the  information  gained  from  the  paper. 
One  excellent  adjunct  is  the  submission  by  the  can- 
didate of  written  work  done  in  connection  with  his 
study  of  history  in  school.  This  may  include  note- 
books, abstracts  of  reading,  and  prepared  papers, 
none  of  which,  however,  should  be  accepted  with- 
out proper  guarantees  of  authenticity  and  indepen- 


134       Entrance  Requirements 

dent  preparation.  Another  supplementary  test, 
which  is  largely  used  in  European  examinations 
and  has  commended  itself  to  the  experience  of 
many  American  examiners,  consists  of  a  brief  oral 
conference  with  the  candidate.  This  should  be 
quite  informal  in  character,  and  should  aim  to  dis- 
cover, if  possible,  something  concerning  the  person- 
ality of  the  candidate  and  the  nature  of  his  historical 
training,  rather  than  to  elicit  brief  answers  to  a  few 
arbitrarily  chosen  questions. 


The  following  analytical  statement  will  show  at 
a  glance  our  recommendation  concerning  the  or- 
ganization of  the  history  course. 

Four  Years'  Course  in  History 

First  year.  —  Ancient  History  to  800  A.D. 

Second  year.  —  Mediaeval  and  Modern  European  History. 

Third  year.  —  English  History. 

Fourth  year.  —  American  History  and  Civil  Government. 

Three  Years'  Course  in  History 

A 

Any  three  of  the  above  blocks. 

B 
First  or  second  year.  —  Ancient  History  to  800  A.D. 


Summary  135 

Second  or  third  year.  —  English  History,  with  special  refer- 
ence to  the  chief  events  in  the  history  of  Continental 
Europe. 

Third  or  fourth  year.  —  American  History  and  Civil  Govern- 
ment. 


First  or  second  year.  —  Ancient  History  to  800  A.D. 

Second  or  third  year.  —  Mediaeval  and  Modern  European 
History. 

Third  or  fourth  year.  —  American  History,  with  a  considera- 
tion of  the  chief  events  in  the  History  of  England. 


First  year.  — Ancient  History  to  800  A.D. 

Second  year.  —  English  History,  with  reference  to  the  chief 

events   in  later  Mediaeval    history   (three  times  per 

week.-) 
Third  year.  —  English  History,  with  reference  to  the  chief 

events  in  Modern  European  History  (three  times  per 

week). 
Fourth  year.  —  American  History  and  Civil  Government. 


First  year.  —  Ancient  History  to  800  A.D. 

Second  year.  —  Mediaeval  and  Modern  European  History. 

Third  year.  —  American    History,  with  special   reference   to 

the  development  of  English  political   principles  and 

English  expansion  in  connection  with  American  colonial 

history  (three  times  per  week). 
Fourth  year.  —  American  History  and  Civil  Government  (three 

times  per  week). 


136       Entrance  Requirements 

This  report  is  offered  with  the  hope  that  it  may 
be  of  service  to  teachers  of  history  and  to  those 
who  have  the  task  of  arranging  school  programmes. 
We  hope  also  that  it  does  not  inadequately  express 
the  opinion  of  progressive  teachers  and  students  as 
to  what  should  be  done  for  the  development  of 
secondary  school  work  in  history. 


ANDREW  C.  MCLAUGHLIN  (chairman), 
Professor  of  American  History  in  the 

University  of  Michigan. 
HERBERT  B.  ADAMS,  CHARLES  H.  HASKINS, 

Professor  of  American  and  In-  Professor  of  Institutional  His- 

stitutional   History  in  Johns  tory  in  the  University  of 

Hopkins  University.  Wisconsin. 

GEORGE  L.  Fox,  LUCY  M.  SALMON, 

Rector  of  the  Hopkins  Gram-  Professor  of  History  in  Vassar 

mar    School,    New    Haven,  College. 
Conn. 

ALBERT  BUSHNELL  HART,  H.  MORSE  STEPHENS, 

Professor  of  History  in  Harvard  Professor  of   Modern   Euro- 
University,  pean    History    in    Cornel] 

University. 


Appendix   I 

The  Present  Condition  of  History 
in  American  Secondary  Schools 

AT  the  very  outset  of  its  work,  the  committee, 
believing  that  recommendations  must  proceed  from 
a  knowledge  of  the  conditions  and  results  in  the 
schools,  undertook  to  learn,  so  far  as  possible,  what 
was  actually  being  done  by  the  secondary  schools 
in  the  country  in  the  subject  of  history.  A  circu- 
lar was  accordingly  prepared  in  elaborate  form  in 
the  hope  that  the  answers  to  the  questions  thus 
proposed  would  give  the  committee  a  basis  of  fact. 
These  circulars  were  not  sent  broadcast :  in  each 
state,  so  far  as  possible,  some  person  acquainted 
with  the  educational  work  of  that  state  sent  us  a 
short  list  of  typical  schools,  large,  middle-sized,  and 
small,  public  and  private ;  and  we  thus  made  up  a 
list  of  about  three  hundred  schools  which  would 
reflect  the  conditions  of  the  whole  country.  From 
most  of  the  schools  thus  approached  answers  were 


138  American  Schools 

received,  perhaps  two  hundred  and  sixty  in  all.  Of 
these,  two  hundred  and  ten  were  sufficiently  full  on 
most  points  to  admit  of  some  sort  of  tabulation 
from  which  general  tendencies  might  be  perceived. 

In  going  over  the  returns  difficulties  were  en- 
countered. Notwithstanding  the  combined  efforts 
of  the  committee,  some  of  the  questions  were  not 
so  framed  as  to  bring  out  precisely  what  was 
wanted.  Accordingly,  toward  the  end  of  the  in- 
vestigation, a  considerable  number  of  the  schools 
which  had  replied  to  the  first  circular  were  asked 
to  send  answers  to  a  second  much  briefer  and  sim- 
pler set  of  questions,  intended  principally  to  make 
clear  the  practice  and  opinion  of  educators  on 
the  points  that  had  proved  the  most  difficult  for 
the  committee.  A  copy  of  this  circular  will  be 
found  at  the  end  of  this  Appendix. 

As  is  usual  in  inquiries  by  correspondence,  the 
returns  show  more  certainly  what  schools  do  not 
do  than  what  they  do ;  the  negative  evidence  is 
convincing  that  the  schools  have  a  great  variety  of 
programmes  and  methods  :  but  it  is  hard  to  be  sure 
that  any  considerable  number  have  the  same  sys- 
tem, or  attach  the  same  meaning  to  such  terms  as 
"collateral  reading,"  "topics,"  "use  of  maps," 
"  note-books,"  etc.  The  general  inferences  from  the 
circulars,  however,  agree  with  the  results  of  many 
personal  conferences  with  teachers,  by  showing  that 


Inquiries  139 

a  large  number  of  schools  set  themselves  earnestly 
to  the  task  of  teaching  history ;  that  a  large  number 
make  a  sufficient  time  allowance  to  deserve  good 
results  ;  and  that  the  general  notions  as  to  methods 
are  on  the  same  lines  throughout  the  country. 
Such  generalizations  as  the  committee  thinks  it- 
self justified  in  making  on  question  of  details, 
from  the  returns  to  the  two  circulars,  supplemented 
by  its  private  information,  may  be  briefly  stated  as 
follows :  — 

Choice  of  Subjects 

The  subjects  in  the  order  of  their  frequency  are  : 
(i)  English  and  American  history,  taught  in  more 
than  half  the  schools  ;  (2)  "  General  history,"  taught 
in  almost  exactly  half  the  schools ;  (3)  Greek  and 
Roman  history,  taught  in  about  half  the  schools ; 
(4)  European  history,  taught  in  about  one-third  of 
the  schools,  the  three  forms  —  mediaeval,  modern, 
and  French  history  —  being  about  equally  common. 
In  a  very  few  schools  the  history  of  the  state  in 
which  they  are  situated  is  a  subject.  The  favorite 
topics  are,  therefore,  English  and  American  history, 
usually  both  taught  in  the  same  school ;  Greek  and 
Roman  history,  usually  both  taught  in  the  same 
school ;  and  some  form  of  what  is  commonly  called 
"  general  history." 


140  American  Schools 

On  the  subject  of  general  history  there  appears 
to  be  wide  divergence  of  practice  as  well  as  of 
opinion.  In  the  Middle  states,  most  of  the  schools 
reporting  have  a  one-year  course,  as  have  also  a 
considerable  number  in  the  West ;  in  New  Eng- 
land, preponderance  of  sentiment  is  against  such 
a  course.  In  some  cases  the  course  takes  the  form 
of  mediaeval  history  alone,  in  some  cases  that  of 
French  history  as  a  groundwork,  —  the  system  rec- 
ommended by  the  Madison  Conference ;  in  most 
instances  the  course  is  apparently  a  general  survey 
based  on  one  text-book,  with  little  or  no  collateral 
reading  or  illustrative  work. 

Order  of  Subjects 

The  committee  has  taken  pains  to  ascertain  the 
more  common  preferences  as  to  the  succession  of 
historical  subjects,  and  finds  that  in  general  four  dif- 
ferent systems  have  been  followed  :  (i)  About  one- 
third  of  the  schools  follow  the  chronological  method, 
taking  up  in  succession  ancient  history,  general  his- 
tory, and  modern  history  in  some  form,  usually  Eng- 
lish or  American  or  both  ;  that  is,  they  use  general 
history  as  a  bridge  between  ancient  times  and  our 
modern  nations.  (2)  A  much  smaller  number  of 
schools,  perhaps  a  seventh  of  the  whole,  prefer  the 
order  —  general,  ancient,  and  modern  ;  that  is,  first 


Subjects  141 

of  all  a  survey  of  the  whole  field,  and  then  more  de- 
tailed study,  first  of  the  ancient  period,  then  of  the 
modern.  This  method  is  apparently  less  common 
in  New  England  than  in  the  West.  (3)  The  third 
method  begins  with  American,  or  sometimes  with 
English  history,  and  then  takes  general  history, 
bringing  in  ancient  history  last.  About  one-fifth 
of  the  schools  reporting  use  this  system,  which  is 
least  common  in  the  Middle  states,  and  which  would 
seem  to  be  devised  to  bring  ancient  history  into  a 
place  convenient  for  college  examinations.  (4)  A 
fourth  method,  which  prevails  in  more  than  a 
quarter  of  the  schools,  is  that  of  beginning  with 
American,  following  with  ancient  history,  and  end- 
ing with  a  general  course ;  that  is,  they  proceed 
from  the  particular  to  the  general. 

To  make  the  generalization  in  broader  form  : 
the  returns  from  a  body  of  schools  most  interested 
in  the  subject  of  history  show  that  one-half  prefer 
to  begin  high-school  work  with  the  history  nearest 
to  the  pupils  in  experience,  and  then  to  take  up 
wider  choices,  while  one-third  have  the  chrono- 
logical system,  and  the  remainder  begin  with  the 
general  survey  of  the  whole  field. 


142  American  Schools 

Separate  College  Course 

The  report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  bore  very 
strongly  against  establishing  courses  in  any  one  sub- 
ject for  the  benefit  of  only  those  pupils  who  expect 
to  go  to  college ;  and  that  recommendation  exactly 
coincides  with  the  actual  experience  of  the  schools 
so  far  as  the  study  of  history  is  concerned.  Three- 
fourths  of  them  advocate,  and  probably  practice,  the 
system  of  having  the  same  teaching  for  both  classes 
of  pupils.  This  generalization  applies  also  to  New 
England,  although  in  that  section  there  is  a  large 
number  of  special  preparatory  schools. 

Time  Given  to  History 

One  of  the  arguments  frequently  urged  against 
insisting  on  a  good  secondary  course  in  history  is 
that  there  is  no  time  for  it.  The  committee,  there- 
fore, has  taken  some  trouble  to  ascertain  the  time 
allowance  now  made  in  various  schools,  asking  in 
the  second  circular  the  specific  question  :  "  What  is 
the  maximum  number  of  exercises  in  history  in  your 
whole  curriculum  (allowing  forty  weeks  as  a  school 
year),  open  to  a  pupil  who  chooses  that  course  which 
has  most  history  in  it  ? "  There  seems  no  reason  to 
doubt  the  sincerity  and  accuracy  of  the  replies  to 
this  question,  although  the  results  are  surprising. 


Courses  and  Time  143 

Only  one-seventh  of  the  schools  offer  less  than 
two  hundred  exercises  in  one  or  another  of  their 
curricula.  Probably  there  are  courses,  as  the  clas- 
sical or  the  scientific,  in  which  this  maximum  num- 
ber of  exercises  is  not  attainable  by  any  one  pupil, 
even  although  the  facilities  of  the  school  permit 
the  offering  of  detached  parts  of  a  good  course. 
Three-fourths  of  the  seventy  schools  scattered 
throughout  the  country  which  report  on  this  ques- 
tion offer  more  than  four  hundred  exercises,  that  is 
the  equivalent  of  five  exercises  a  week  during  two 
years.  The  Middle  and  Western  states  are  rather 
more  alive  than  New  England  to  the  importance 
of  history ;  and  some  schools,  both  in  the  East  and 
West  allow  as  much  as  eight  hundred  exercises  :  it 
is  therefore  safe  to  assume  that  good  secondary 
schools  can  so  arrange  their  schedules  as  to  make 
a  proper  time  allowance  for  history. 

Text-Books 

Knowledge  as  to  the  actual  methods  pursued  in 
schools  is  difficult  to  gain  from  written  circulars  be- 
cause so  much  depends  upon  the  understanding  and 
use  of  terms  ;  but  the  experience  of  the  members  of 
the  committee  gained  by  association  with  second- 
ary teachers,  and  in  many  cases  by  actual  personal 
knowledge  of  their  work,  supplements  and  corrects 


144  American  Schools 

such  generalizations  as  may  be  made  from  the 
returns  to  our  circulars.  The  text-books  used  are 
legion,  and  without  mentioning  titles  it  is  the  judg- 
ment of  the  committee  that,  although  the  old-fash- 
ioned and  discarded  books  are  now  disappearing, 
the  favorite  text-books  seem  still  to  be  the  briefer 
ones.  Few  schools  appear  to  select  a  book  with  a 
good  round  amount  of  reading  matter  ;  hence,  un- 
less supplemented  by  other  work,  the  text-books 
used  are  likely  to  furnish  an  insufficient  mental 
pabulum.  Some  specific  information  has  been  ob- 
tained about  the  opinion  of  selected  teachers  as  to 
the  wisdom  of  using  more  than  one  kind  of  text- 
book in  the  same  class.  Opinion  seems  about 
evenly  divided,  with  a  preponderance  against  the 
practice. 

Collateral  Reading 

On  the  question  of  supplementing  text-books  with 
additional  reading  of  some  sort  there  seems  little  dif- 
ference of  opinion  :  only  one  principal  known  to  the 
committee  advocates  the  extensive  use  of  the  text- 
book with  little  or  no  additional  work  ;  about  one- 
half  the  selected  principals  favor  a  large  amount 
of  collateral  reading ;  the  other  half  prefer  more 
searching  text-book  work  and  less  reading.  In 
view  of  this  very  distinct  preference,  it  is  surpris- 
ing to  find  how  few  of  the  schools  really  seem  fitted 


Books;  Written  Work        145 

out  with  good  collections  of  standard  secondary 
writers,  suitable  either  for  reading  or  for  written 
work.  Even  schools  with  considerable  libraries 
appear  unable  to  keep  up  with  the  new  general 
books,  which  would  be  so  useful  to  pupils. 

Perhaps  this  lack  of  material  accounts  for  the 
facts  that  very  few  schools  (most  of  them  in  the 
Middle  states)  actually  require  as  many  as  three 
hundred  pages  of  collateral  reading  in  connection 
with  a  course  of  five  hours  per  week  for  a  year,  and 
that  three-fourths  of  the  schools  have  no  specified 
requirements.  Apparently  pupils  are  invited  to 
browse,  but  there  is  no  system  of  enforcing  the 
reading.  Perhaps  some  of  these  schools  may,  with- 
out specifying  a  fixed  number  of  pages,  require 
results  which  may  be  gained  from  any  one  of  sev- 
eral books ;  but  it  seems  a  fair  inference  from  the 
replies,  that  as  yet  the  schools  have  not  fully  intro- 
duced the  system  of  collateral  reading,  and  that 
many  of  them  have  not  the  necessary  library. 

Written  Work 

From  the  replies  received,  written  work  seems  to 
be  reasonably  well  established  ;  very  few  schools  re- 
port that  they  require  none.  In  most  cases  this  work 
makes  up  less  than  one-third  of  the  time  spent  by  the 
pupils  in  a  course.  A  great  variety  of  written  exer- 

L 


146  American  Schools 

cises  are  in  use,  and  the  schools  seem  eager  to  further 
the  method ;  but  in  many  schools  it  appears  not  to  be 
a  very  exacting  part  of  the  historical  work.  Many 
teachers  are  struck  with  the  effect  of  written  work 
in  training  the  memory  and  the  powers  of  selection 
and  in  developing  a  capacity  for  individual  thought. 
They  see  also  that  accuracy  of  arrangement  and 
the  power  of  analysis  are  induced,  as  well  as  an 
acquaintance  with  the  material,  and  an  ability  to 
learn  facts  and  to  state  them  cogently.  The  criti- 
cisms most  often  passed  upon  such  work  are  three : 
that  it  runs  to  routine  and  copying ;  that  it  con- 
sumes too  much  time ;  and  that  "  it  kills  off  good 
teachers."  It  appears,  however,  that  these  disad- 
vantages have  not  been  sufficient  to  cause  the  giv- 
ing up  of  the  system,  which  in  a  considerable  body 
of  schools  is  now  fairly  established. 

Use  of  Sources 

The  reports  of  more  than  sixty  principals  on  the 
subject  of  using  historical  sources  either  as  collat- 
eral reading  or  as  material  for  written  work,  show 
that  this  system  has  little  hold  in  the  Middle  states, 
much  in  New  England,  and  some  in  the  West. 
Nearly  half  the  principals  do  not  favor  it,  and  some 
who  like  it  have  not  sufficient  books.  The  objec- 
tions appear  to  be  :  first,  that  it  is  a  time-consuming 


Sources;  Teachers  147 

method  ;  second,  that  it  throws  upon  the  pupils  an 
undue  responsibility  beyond  their  years  and  under- 
standing ;  and  third,  that  it  is  "  an  attempt  to  foist 
upon  the  preparatory  student  the  work  of  the  uni- 
versity specialist."  The  arguments  used  in  favor  of 
the  method  are,  that  it  teaches  the  habit  of  getting 
at  the  bottom  of  a  question  ;  that  it  induces  methods 
of  correct  note-taking  and  record;  that  it  trains 
individual  judgment;  and  that  it  "vitalizes"  his- 
tory and  leads  to  greater  interest  and  zeal.  From 
the  replies  it  seems  doubtful  whether  all  the  teach- 
ers know  what  is  meant  by  "  sources,"  or  under- 
stand where  to  stop  in  using  them  in  connection 
with  busy  school  work. 

Teachers 

One  question  asked  of  the  selected  principals 
was  :  "  Are  your  teachers  of  history  especially  pre- 
pared for  that  work,  as  your  teachers  of  languages 
or  science  are  expected  to  be  prepared  ? "  To  this 
question  one-fourth  frankly  answered  that  they  had 
no  teachers  of  history  who  had  been  especially  pre- 
pared. About  another  fourth  put  part  of  their  his- 
tory work  into  the  hands  of  untrained  teachers. 
Something  more  than  half  give  no  work  except  to 
those  who  have  special  preparation.  The  Middle 
and  Western  states  have  in  this  respect  a  great 


148  American  Schools 

advantage  over  New  England,  where  the  idea  that 
none  but  persons  who  know  history  can  teach  his- 
tory seems  slow  of  infiltration. 


College  Requirements 

It  is  not  the  function  of  this  committee  to  make 
up  a  college  entrance  system,  but  rather  to  sug- 
gest a  plan  of  study  for  the  schools ;  and  the 
committee  has  abstained  from  recommending  any 
distinct  system  or  method.  As  a  means  of  col- 
lecting information  it  asked  for  the  opinions  of 
teachers  as  to  a  plan  which  has  become  known 
through  the  country.  One  of  the  specific  ques- 
tions asked  was  therefore  as  to  the  state  of  mind 
toward  "  the  recommendation  of  the  New  York 
Conference  of  1896,"  which  was  substantially  as 
follows :  — 

(a)  Minimum  time,  two  years,  three  exercises 

per  week  (or  one  year,  five  exercises  per 
week). 

(b)  A  good  text-book. 

(c)  Collateral  reading. 

(</)  Written  work  (a  note-book,  to  be  certified 

by  the  teacher). 
(e)   Presumably  two   subjects,  as   Greek  and 

Roman,  or  English  and  American. 


College  Requirements         149 

This  recommendation  has  the  qualified,  or  slightly 
qualified,  approval  of  a  little  more  than  half  the 
principals  replying ;  and  seems  to  meet  with  little 
objection  in  New  England,  where  various  colleges 
have  indeed  adopted  it.  The  criticisms  are  most 
numerous  from  the  West,  but  about  half  the  ob- 
jectors take  exception  only  to  the  time  require- 
ment ;  they  urge  that  the  colleges  ought  to  require 
more  subjects,  or  at  least  that  the  minimum  time 
ought  to  be  enlarged.  Four  persons  object  to  the 
collateral  reading  —  none  from  New  England.  To 
written  work  there  is  little  or  no  specific  objection. 
The  most  frequent  criticism  is  as  to  the  note-book 
requirement ;  on  that  point  one-ninth  of  the  answers 
protest.  A  small  number  object  to  the  choice  of 
subjects  stated  by  the  Conference.  To  sum  up 
the  returns  on  this  question,  the  serious  objections 
raised  are  not  against  a  wider  allowance  of  history, 
but  against  details,  of  which  the  note-book  sugges- 
tion is  the  point  most  criticized. 

Summary 

In  this  attempt  to  state  in  a  few  words  the 
practices  and  preferences  of  the  three  thousand 
secondary  schools  in  the  country,  the  committee 
has  availed  itself,  first,  of  the  experience  of  its 
own  members,  four  of  whom  have  been  teachers 


150  American  Schools 

in  secondary  schools  and  all  of  whom  have  gained 
some  familiarity  with  instruction  in  these  subjects, 
whether  as  examiners,  inspectors,  or  members  of 
school  boards ;  second,  of  the  acquaintance  of  the 
members  of  the  committee  with  teachers,  schools, 
and  conditions  in  the  various  parts  of  the  country ; 
third,  of  answers  to  the  circulars  sent  to  schools, 
stated  by  educational  authorities  to  be  representa- 
tive, some  of  which  are  very  large  and  strong,  some 
smaller,  and  some  weak.  In  the  260  schools  re- 
plying out  of  this  category,  an  attempt  has  been 
made  to  discover  the  practice  in  teaching  history  ; 
and  a  second  inquiry  has  been  sent  out  to  a  body 
of  schools  which  from  their  answers  to  the  first 
circulars  seemed  in  a  position  to  furnish  repre- 
sentative information.  If  the  committee  has  mis- 
judged what  the  schools  are  doing  and  may  be 
expected  to  do,  it  has  not  been  from  lack  of  effort, 
or  from  preconceptions  as  to  what  the  schools  ought 
to  do,  but  from  the  impossibility  of  generalizing 
where  the  practices  of  the  schools  are  so  varied. 

Circular 

It  has  not  seemed  necessary  to  reprint  the  first 
circular  of  inquiry  ;  but  we  add  a  copy  of  the  second 
circular,  since  it  was  directed  to  the  questions  which 
in  the  course  of  the  investigation  seemed  vital. 


Summary  151 

My  Dear  Sir:  Some  time  ago  you  were  good 
enough,  at  the  request  of  this  Committee,  to  fill  out 
a  circular  of  inquiry  as  to  the  teaching  of  history 
in  your  school.  We  beg  to  thank  you  for  your 
courtesy,  and  to  express  our  sense  of  the  helpful- 
ness of  your  answers. 

In  attempting  to  collect  the  answers  from  vari- 
ous sources,  and  to  arrive  at  a  just  estimate  of 
what  the  schools  are  doing  and  can  do,  we  need 
definite  statements  on  a  few  points,  in  a  form  for 
comparison ;  and  we  therefore  ask  you  to  add  to 
the  obligation  under  which  you  have  placed  the 
Committee  and  all  those  interested  in  the  proper 
teaching  of  history,  by  briefly  stating  your  practice 
and  your  preferences  with  regard  to  the  subjects 
mentioned  below. 

The  Committee  will  feel  very  grateful  for  sug- 
gestions of  any  difficulties  which  you  foresee  in 
the  new  methods  which  have  recently  been  brought 
forward.  We  want  to  know  both  sides,  so  that 
we  may  make  no  recommendations  which  will  not 
commend  themselves  to  intelligent  teachers. 

In  order  to  be  available,  your  answer  should  reach 
the  Secretary  of  the  Committee  by  December  17. 
Please  answer  on  this  sheet  or  otherwise,  number- 
ing the  answers  in  sequence.  Your  answer  is  not 
to  be  made  public ;  and  even  the  briefest  replies 
will  be  much  appreciated,  if  time  presses. 


152  American  Schools 

1 .  Courses.  —  What  is  your  practice  and  what  is  your  opinion 

on  having  a  separate  course  in  history  for  those  only  who 
expect  to  go  to  college  ;  and  another  course  for  others? 

2.  Order  of  Courses.  —  What  do  you  consider  the  best  order 

in  which  to  take  up  the  five  subjects  most  frequently  of- 
fered: viz.,  American,  English,  General,  Greek,  Roman? 

3.  General  History. — What  is  your  practice  and  what  is 

your  opinion  as  to  a  one  year's  course  (of  five  exercises 
a  week)  in  "  general  history"? 

4.  Time  given  to  History.  —  What  is  the  maximum  number 

of  exercises  in  history  In  your  whole  curriculum  (allow- 
ing forty  weeks  as  a  school  year),  open  to  a  pupil  who 
chooses  that  course  which  has  most  history  in  it  ? 

5.  Text-books.  —  What  is  your  practice  and  your  opinion  as 

to  using  more  than  one  kind  of  text-books  in  the  same 
class? 

6.  Collateral  Reading.  —  Which  of  the  following  systems  do 

you  prefer :  Simply  a  text-book  drilled  over  and  over ; 
or  a  text-book  thoroughly  taught,  with  some  collateral 
reading ;  or  a  text-book  carefully  read  as  a  backbone 
with  much  collateral  reading?  How  many  pages  of 
collateral  reading  do  you  actually  require  in  a  course  of 
five  hours  a  week  for  a  year? 

7.  Written  Work.  —  Do  your  pupils  do  substantial  and  sys- 

tematic written  work  throughout  their  history  courses 
—  sufficient  to  make  up  s;;y  a  third  of  their  history 
work  ?  What  advantages  and  disadvantages  do  you 
notice  in  written  work? 

8.  Sources.  —  Do  you  use  sources  for  any  purpose  —  either 

as  collateral  reading  or  as  material  for  written  work? 
What  do  you  consider  the  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages of  the  method? 


Circular  153 

9.  Teachers.  —  Are  your  teachers  of  history  especially  pre- 
pared for  that  work,  as  your  teachers  of  languages  or 
science  are  expected  to  be  prepared  ? 

10.  College  Requirements.  —  What  is  your  judgment  of  the 
recommendation  of  the  New  York  Conference  of  1896 
for  a  uniform  entrance  requirement  ?  It  is  substantially 
as  follows :  — 

a.  Minimum  time :  2  years,  3  exercises  a  week  (or  I 

year,  5  exercises  a  week) . 

b.  A  good  text-book. 

c.  Collateral  reading. 

d.  Written  work  (a  note-book  to  be  certified  by  the 

teacher). 

e.  Presumably  two  subjects,  as  Greek  and  Roman,  or 

English  and  American. 

Examples  of  Extended  Courses 

On  the  next  four  pages  are  examples  of  courses 
of  study  actually  carried  out,  which  justify  the  con- 
fidence of  the  committee  in  long  and  continuous 
courses  in  history.  The  first  (pp.  154-1 55)  is  the 
course  of  an  Eastern  high  school;  the  second 
(pp.  156-157),  of  a  Western  high  school.  They 
are  offered  here  as  exhibits,  showing  how  practical 
teachers  in  the  secondary  schools  have  arranged 
their  programmes  so  as  to  give  time  for  the  sub- 
ject. 


154 


American  Schools 


First  Year. 


Second  Year. 


Third  Year. 


Fourth  Year. 


CLASSICAL. 

SCIENTIFIC. 

NORMAL 
PREPARATORY. 

English  I. 

English  I. 

English  I. 

Mathematics  I. 

Mathematics  I. 

Mathematics  I. 

Latin  I. 

Latin  I.  or  His- 

Latin I  .  or  French 

History  I. 

tory  I.  or  Ger- 

I. or  German  I. 

man  I. 

Physical      Geog- 

Physical    Geog- 

raphy. 

raphy  I. 

(English  II. 

English  II. 

English  II. 

Mathematics  II. 

Mathematics  II. 

Mathematics  II. 

Latin  II. 

Latin  II.  or  His- 

Latin [I.  or 

Greek  I.  or 
French  I.  or 

tory  n.  or  Ger- 
man II. 

French  II.  or 
German  II. 

German   I. 

Physics  I. 

Physics  I. 

Latin  III. 

English    III.    or 

English  III. 

Greek  II.  or 
French    II.  or 

Mathematics 
III. 

History  I. 
Latin  III.  or 

German  II. 

History  I.  or  m. 

French  III.  or 

Physics   I.   or 

or  Physics  II. 

German  III. 

Mathematics 

Latin  1  1  1.  or  His- 

Chemistry. 

III. 

tory   III. 

History  II.  or  III. 

Mathematics  III. 

or  Mathematics  . 

or  French  I.  or 

III. 

German  I. 

Chemistry. 

Latin  IV. 
Greek  III.  or 

English    III.    or 
Mathematics 

Latin  IV.  or  Spe- 
cial     Drawing 

French  III.  or 

III. 

and  Music. 

German  III. 

History  IV. 

Mathematics  III. 

History  IV. 

Latin  IV.  or 

or  History  m. 

English  III. 

Mathematics 

History  IV. 

IV.  or  French 

Biology. 

' 

II.  or  German 

II. 

Biology. 

History   I.   is  Ancient    History  to  the   death    of   Charlemagne.     History  II.  is 
European  History  from  814  to  the  nineteenth   century.      History  III.  is    English 


An  Eastern  Programme        155 


LITERARY. 

BUSINESS. 

MANUAL 

ART. 

TRAINING. 

English  I. 
Mathematics  I. 

English  I. 
Mathematics  I. 

English  I. 
Mathematics  I. 

English  I. 
Mathematics  I. 

French  I.  or 

French  I  .  or  Ger- 

Drawing I.  and 

i  Drawing  I. 

German  I.  or 

man  I. 

Manual 

Clay  Model- 

Latin  I. 
History  I. 

History  I.  or 
Physical    Geo- 
graphy I. 

Training  I. 
a.  or  b. 
History  I.  or 

ling. 
story  I. 

Physical  Geog- 

raphy. 

English  II. 
Mathematics  II. 

English  II. 
Mathematics  II. 

English  II. 
Mathematics  II. 

English  II. 
Mathematics  II. 

History  II. 

French  1  1.  or  Ger- 

Physics I. 

History  II. 

French  II.   or 
German  II.  or 
Latin  II. 

man  II. 
Bookkeeping. 
Commercial 
Arithmetic  I. 

'Drawing    II. 
and   Manual 
Training   II. 
a.  or  b. 

f  Drawing   II. 
<      and    Wood- 
(     carving. 

English  III. 
History  m. 

Bookkeeping  and 
Commercial 

History  I.,  II.,  or 

m. 

English    III.    or 
Mathematics 

Physics  I.  or  Bi- 

Law II. 

Mathematics  I  II. 

III. 

ology  I. 
French  III.  or  I. 

French  III.  or  I. 
or  German  III. 

or  History  III. 
Chemistry  I.    or 

Chemistry  or 
French   I.  or 

or  German  III. 

or  I. 

English  III. 

German  I. 

or  I.  or  Latin 
III. 

Stenography, 
Typewriting  I. 

'Drawing     III. 
and   Manual 

History  m. 

Drawing     III. 

or  English  III. 
History  I.,  11.,  or 

Training  III. 
a.  or  b. 

Clay  Model- 
ling and 

m. 

Woodcarv  - 

ing- 

English  IV. 
History  IV. 

History  IV. 

Stenography, 

History  IV. 

Mathematics  III. 

History  IV. 
English    III.    or 

Chemistry   I.    or 

Type  writing  II. 

or  English  III. 

IV.  or  History 

Biology  I. 

or  Commercial 

or  Chemistry. 

of  Art. 

French  I.  or  II. 

History  and 

Elements  of  Eco- 

History of  Art  or 

or   German    I. 

Geography. 

nomics. 

French    II.    or 

or  II.  or  Latin 

Elements  of  Eco- 

(Drawing     IV. 

German  II. 

IV. 

nomics. 

and   Manual 

Drawing      IV. 

French  I.  or  II. 

Training  IV. 

Clay  Model- 

or    German   I. 

a.  or  b. 

ling  and 

or  II. 

Woodcarv- 

ing. 

History,     History  IV.  is  the  history  of  the  government  of  the  United  States. 


156 


American  Schools 


LATIN-GERMAN. 

English  (3), History  (Ancient)  (2). 

Algebra  (5). 

Physical  Geography  (5). 

Latin  or  German  (5) . 

English  (5). 
Algebra  (5). 
History  (Ancient)  (5). 
Latin  or  German  (5). 


Algebra  (5). 

History  (European)  (5). 

English  (5). 

Latin  or  German  (5). 


Geometry  (5). 

History  (European)  (5). 

English  (5). 

Latin  or  German  (5). 

English  and  American  Lit.  (5). 
Geometry  (3),  Physics  (2). 
Latin  (5). 
German  (5). 

English  and  American  Lit  (5). 
Physics  (5). 
Latin  (5). 
German  (5). 

U.  S.  History  and  Civics  (5). 
Geom.  and  Higher  Arithmetic  (5). 
Latin  (5). 
German  (5). 


U.  S.  History  and  Civics  (5). 
Geom.  and  Higher  Arithmetic  (5). 
Latin  (5). 
German  (5). 


FIRST  YEAR 

LATIN. 

English  (3),  History  (Ancient)  (a). 
Algebra  (5) . 

Physical  Geography  (5). 
Latin  (5). 

Second 

English  (s). 
Algebra  (5). 
History  (Ancient)  (5). 
Latin  (5). 

SECOND  TEAR. 

Algebra  (5). 

History  (European)  (5). 

English  (s). 

Latin,  Viri  Romae  (5). 

Second 

Geometry  (5). 
History  (European)  (5). 
English  (5). 
Latin,  Caesar  (5). 

THIRD  YEAR. 

English  and  American  Lit.  (5). 
Geometry  (3),  Physics  (2). 
History  (English)  (5). 
Latin,  Caesar  (5). 

Second 

English  and  American  Lit.  (5). 
Physics  (5). 
History  (English)  (5). 
Latin  (5),  Cicero. 

FOURTH  YEAR. 

U.  S.  History  and  Civics  (5). 
Geom.  and  Higher  Arithmetic  (5). 
Latin  (5),  Virgil. 
English  and  English  Literature  (5). 

Second 

U.  S.  History  and  Civics  (5). 
Geom.  and  Higher  Arithmetic  (5). 
Latin,  Virgil  (5). 
English  and  English  Literature  (5). 


Numbers  in  parentheses  designate  the  number  of  recitations  per  week.     An- 
cient history  is  continued  to  800  A.D.     In  the  third  year  a  few  weeks  are  given  to 


A  Western  Programme       157 


First  Term. 

GERMAN. 

English  (3),  History  (Ancient)  (2). 
Algebra  (5). 
Physical  Geography  (5). 
German  (5). 

Term. 

English  (5). 
Algebra  (5). 
History  (Ancient)  (5). 
German  (5). 

First  Term. 

Algebra  (5). 

History  (European)  (5). 

English  (5). 

German  (5). 

Term. 

Geometry  (5). 

History  (European)  (5). 

English  (5). 

German  (5). 

First  Term. 

English  and  American  Lit.  (5). 
Geometry  (3),  Physics  (2). 
History  (English)  (5). 
German  (5). 

Term. 

English  and  American  Lit.  (5). 

Physics  (5). 

History  (English)  (5). 

German  (5). 

First  Term. 

U.  S.  History  and  Civics  (5). 

Geom.  and  Higher  Arithmetic  (5). 

German  (5). 

English  and  English  Literature  (5). 

Term. 

U.  S.  History  and  Civics  (5). 

Geom.  and  Higher  Arithmetic  (5). 

German  (5). 

English  and  English  Literature  (5). 


ENGLISH. 

English  (3),  History  (Ancient)  (a) 
Algebra  (5). 
Physical  Geography  (5). 
Botany  (5). 

English  (5). 
Algebra  (5), 
History  (Ancient)  (5). 
Botany  (5). 

Algebra  (5). 

History  (European)  (5). 

English  (5). 

Zoology  (5). 

Geometry  (5). 
History  (European)  (5). 
English  (5). 
Physiology  (5). 

English  and  American  Lit.  (5). 
Geometry  (3),  Physics  (2). 
History  (English)  (5). 
Physiology  (3),  Physics  (2). 

English  and  American  Lit.  (5). 

Physics  (5). 

History  (English)  (5). 

Geometry. 

U.  S.  History  and  Civics  (5). 
Geom.  and  Higher  Arithmetic  (5). 
Chemistry  and  Summary  (5). 
English  and  English  Literature  (5). 

U.  S.  History  and  Civics  (5), 
Geom.  and  Higher  Arithmetic  (5). 
Chemistry  and  Summary  (5). 
English  and  English  Literature  (5). 


French  history.     The  rest  of  the  time  to  English.     All  the  work  in  civil  govern- 
ment is  done  in  connection  with  the  work  in  history. 


Appendix   II 

Study   of  History   Below  the 
Secondary   School 1 

BY    LUCY    M.    SALMON 

THE  question  of  instruction  in  history  in  the 
grades  below  the  high  school  is  one  that  concerns 
the  present  condition  of  such  instruction  and  also 
one  of  an  ideal  condition  toward  which  it  may  be 
possible  to  work.  An  inquiry  2  in  regard  to  history 

1  This  report  has  been  prepared  by  the  writer  while  in  Paris, 
and  it  has  not  received  the  benefit  of  criticism  from  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  committee.     The  writer  therefore  desires  to  assume  the 
personal  responsibility  of  the  recommendations  included  in  it. 

2  The  inquiry  was  addressed  to  the  superintendents  of  public 
instruction,  and  the  result  was  as  follows  :  — 

States  having  a  uniform  course  in  history  .         .         .         .22 
States  having  such  a  course  in  preparation         ...       4 

States  having  no  uniform  course 10 

Indefinite  replies        ........       4 

No  reply 5 

45 
158 


Present  Condition  159 

in  the  public  schools  of  the  different  states  leads 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  instruction  at  present 
given  in  this  subject  leaves  much  to  be  desired. 

A  superficial  examination  of  the  replies  received 
shows  that  only  one-half  of  the  states  have  a 
uniform  course  in  history  and  that  even  in  those 
states  having  such  a  course  adherence  to  it  is 
sometimes  optional  with  the  schools.1  It  is  not 
possible  to  discuss  here  the  advantages  of  uniform 
curricula  within  limited  areas,  but  it  may  be  noted 
that  progress  in  education  has  invariably  followed 
the  adoption  of  such  a  uniform  course,  and  that 
those  nations  that  have  uniformity  to-day  have, 
as  a  rule,  the  best  systems  of  education.  With 
two  exceptions,  the  ten  states  of  the  Union  that 
have  no  uniform  course  of  instruction  are  among 
the  most  backward  in  America  in  all  matters  of 
public  education. 

The  second  noteworthy  fact  is  the  absence  in 
nearly  all  of  the  states  of  a  clear  and  definite 
understanding  of  the  place  of  history  in  the  cur- 
riculum. History  is  generally  taught  "  because 
every  one  ought  to  know  something  of  the  history 
of  his  own  country,"  yet  no  explanation  is  given 

1  "No  school  in  the  commonwealth  (Massachusetts)  is  required 
to  pursue  this  course  of  study.  I  do  not  know  of  any  school  that 
adheres  to  it  in  all  its  details."  —  F.  A.  HILL,  Secretary  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education. 


160  Lower  Schools 

for  this  assertion,  and  there  is  often  no  appreciation 
of  the  educational  value  of  historical  study.  Any 
course  of  instruction  leaves  something  to  be 
desired  if  it  does  not  show  obvious  reasons  for  its 
existence. 

The  corresponding  noteworthy  fact  is  that,  if 
a  definite  reason  for  the  study  of  history  is 
presented,  it  is  the  factitious  one  of  patriotism.1 
The  idea  that  the  chief  object  in  teaching  history 
is  to  teach  patriotism  is  so  thoroughly  ingrained, 
not  only  in  America  but  in  other  countries,2  that 
it  is  extremely  difficult  to  combat  it.  Yet  it  must 
be  evident  that  the  patriotism  thus  advocated  is 
more  or  less  a  spurious  one,  a  patriotism  that 
would  seek  to  present  distorted  ideas  of  the  past 

1  "  Kindle   the   fires  of  patriotism  and  feed  them  constantly." 
—  Nevada, 

"  Develop  patriotism."  —  Colorado. 

The  object  "is  to  make  our  boys  and  girls  true  patriots."  — 
North  Carolina. 

2  In  France  the  question  was  asked  of  the  candidates  for  the 
modern  baccalaureate,  July,  1897,  "What  purpose  does  the  teach- 
ing of  history  serve  ?  "  and  eighty  per  cent  answered,  "  to  promote 
patriotism."  —  Langlois  and  Seignobos,  Introduction  aux  £tndes 
Historiques,  288,  289. 

The  theories  of  the  emperor  of  Germany  are  well  known,  and  it 
is  perhaps  inevitable,  in  view  of  the  long  struggle  of  Germany  for 
nationality,  that  the  teaching  of  history  in  Germany  should  be  more 
or  less  colored  by  a  desire  to  emphasize  the  progress  the  empire 
has  made  in  this  direction. 


Patriotism  161 

with  the  idea  of  glorifying  one  country  at  the  pos- 
sible expense  of  truth.  If  the  facts  of  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war  should  be  used  both  in  France  and 
in  Germany  to  inculcate  this  kind  of  patriotism, 
diametrically  opposite  results  would  be  reached  ; 
if  the  American  Revolution  is  to  teach  this  patriot- 
ism both  in  England  and  in  America,  one  nation 
or  the  other  must  be  illogical ;  if  the  Northern 
and  the  Southern  states  of  America  should  use  the 
facts  of  the  Civil  War  to  promote  either  a  national 
or  a  sectional  patriotism  of  this  character,  those 
facts  would  have  to  be  perverted.  That  the  ulti- 
mate object  of  history,  as  of  all  sciences,  is  the 
search  for  truth,  and  that  that  search  entails  the 
responsibility  of  abiding  by  the  results  when 
found,  is  yet  to  be  learned  by  many  of  our 
teachers  of  history. 

The  present  condition  of  instruction  in  history 
in  the  schools  is  open  to  criticism  for  another  rea- 
son. The  curriculum  has  in  many  cases  not  been 
the  result  of  educational  experience  or  a  product 
of  educational  theory.  This  fact  explains  in  large 
measure  the  prevailing  desire  to  use  history  as  a 
vehicle  for  teaching  patriotism.  It  probably  does 
not  admit  of  question  that  the  curriculum  of  the 
public  schools  must  and  should  be  enacted  by  the 
state  legislatures,  but  it  is  equally  true  that  behind 
these  legislatures  should  be  organized  bodies  of 

M 


1 62  Lower  Schools 

competent  advisers  to  whose  decisions  on  educa- 
tional matters  the  state  legislatures  should  give 
the  weight  of  their  authority  rather  than  them- 
selves assume  the  initiative. 

Another  result  of  the  condition  just  mentioned 
is  the  tendency  to  attempt  only  the  teaching  of 
United  States  history.  The  makers  of  our  pro- 
grammes have  encouraged  the  public  to  believe 
that  the  history  of  the  United  States  is  the  only 
history  worth  studying,  in  that  it  is  as  a  rule  the 
only  history  prescribed  ;  it  is  studied  in  the  seventh 
grade  from  1492  to  1789,  and  in  the  eighth  grade 
from  1 789  to  the  present ;  in  at  least  eleven  of  the 
states  the  history  of  the  state  is  also  prescribed, 
and  in  only  five  does  the  curriculum  contain  any 
suggestion  as  to  teaching  the  history  of  other 
countries.  Their  argument,  in  which  much  truth 
lies,  is  the  double  one  of  sentiment  and  of  utility, 
—  of  sentiment  because  we  should  keep  an  un- 
broken connection  with  our  past,  of  utility  because 
citizenship  should  be  based  on  an  intelligent  under- 
standing of  past  as  well  as  of  present  political  con- 
ditions. Yet  there  are  grave  objections  to  this 
exclusive  study  of  the  history  of  the  United  States. 
Such  study  must  be  first  of  all  insufficient.  It 
gives  but  a  warped,  narrow,  circumscribed  view  of 
history, — it  is  history  detached  from  its  natural 
foundation  —  European  history,  it  is  history  sus- 


United  States  History        163 

pended  in  mid-air,  it  is  history  that  has  no  natural 
beginning  apart  from  its  connection  with  European 
history.  It  is  indeed  difficult  to  decide  where  the 
history  of  America  should  begin, — if  with  the 
period  of  discovery  and  exploration,  then  it  is  in 
reality  European  history;  if  with  the  period  of 
colonization,  then  it  is  rather  English  history;  if 
with  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution,  then  it  is  the 
history  of  a  youth  after  he  has  attained  his  major- 
ity but  whose  past  is  in  oblivion.  If  it  is  true  that 
the  history  of  England  is  the  only  history  studied 
in  the  elementary  and  the  higher  grade  board 
schools  of  England,  it  is  also  true  that  the  history 
of  England  is  so  intimately  connected  with  that 
of  the  Continent  that  some  knowledge  of  general 
European  history  must  of  necessity  be  acquired 
through  this  study  of  a  limited  field.  Yet  it  is  also 
true  that  the  teaching  of  history  in  England  is  far 
inferior  to  that  in  Germany  and  in  France,  and  no 
small  element  in  this  inferiority  is  the  limitation  of 
the  course  to  the  history  of  England.  If  the  in- 
struction in  history  in  France  and  in  Germany  is 
confessedly  superior  to  that  given  in  other  coun- 
tries, it  is  in  no  small  part  due  to  the  breadth  of 
view  gained  through  the  careful  study  of  the  his- 
tory of  other  nations.  The  social  unit,  the  political 
unit,  the  ecclesiastical  unit,  is  constantly  enlarg- 
ing, and  the  educational  curriculum  must  widen  its 


164  Lower  Schools 

boundaries  if  it  is  to  keep  pace  with  the  evolution 
in  other  directions. 

But  difficult  as  it  is  to  find  substantial  reasons 
for  the  exclusive  study  of  United  States  history  as 
a  whole,  it  is  still  more  difficult  to  find  them  for 
the  study  of  the  history  of  the  individual  states. 
This  history,  prescribed  by  at  least  eleven  of  the 
state  legislatures,  is  an  evidence  of  misdirected 
patriotism  and  also  probably  a  result  of  the  peda- 
gogical cry  that  swept  the  country  a  few  years  ago, 
"  from  the  known  to  the  unknown."  But  the  de- 
mand for  state  history  rests  on  no  substantial  basis 
either  historical  or  pedagogical.  Every  state  in 
the  Union  has  artificial  boundary  lines  determined 
by  provincial  grants  or  by  legislative  acts  accord- 
ing to  parallels  of  latitude  and  longitude,  and  to 
attempt  to  endow  these  artificially  created  states 
with  the  attributes  of  organic  states  is  to  distort 
historical  truth.  It  is  equally  true  that  the  demand 
that  a  study  should  proceed  "  from  the  known  to 
the  unknown"  may  involve  a  fallacy,  that  what  lies 
nearest  may  sometimes  be  most  obscure,  and  what 
is  remote  in  time  or  place  be  most  easily  under- 
stood. 

It  must  be  understood  that  this  criticism  is  not 
one  of  the  study  of  American  history,  but  of  its 
exclusive  study  and  of  the  reasons  so  often  as- 
signed for  this  study.  Any  study  of  American 


State  History  165 

history  must  be  worse  than  barren  that  demands 
the  memorizing  of  a  text-book,  but  that  leaves  a 
boy  in  ignorance  as  to  what  are  the  fundamental 
facts  in  American  history ;  that  insists  upon  de- 
tailed information  in  regard  to  the  campaigns  of 
the  Revolutionary  War,  but  that  has  implanted  no 
notion  of  personal  responsibility  to  the  government 
established  through  that  war.  In  many  states 
where  the  foreign  element  is  large,  there  is  abso- 
lute ignorance  of  the  nature  of  republican  institu- 
tions. In  others,  where  the  native-born  element 
predominates,  there  is  often  no  appreciation  either 
of  the  duties  or  of  the  privileges  or  of  the  oppor- 
tunities of  citizenship.  History  as  taught  in  either 
of  these  classes  of  states  is  open  to  the  same  criti- 
cism as  is  historical  instruction  in  the  European 
schools  where  the  history  of  the  past  is  taught 
without  reference  to  the  conditions  of  the  present. 
These  grave  faults  must  be  avoided  in  American 
schools  by  the  insistence  at  all  times  upon  the  fact 
that  "  good  citizenship  must  be  the  religion  of  the 
common  schools."  1 

1  Much  of  this  work  of  inculcating  right  ideas  of  personal  re- 
sponsibility may  be  done  incidentally  in  connection  with  other  parts 
of  the  programme.  Washington's  birthday,  Lincoln's  birthday, 
Decoration  Day,  election  day,  general  exercises,  debating  clubs, 
work  in  English,  and  a  score  of  other  occasions,  present  constant 
opportunity  for  giving  incidental  and  yet  serious  information  in 
regard  to  American  affairs,  and  for  awakening  an  interest  in  them. 


1 66  Lower  Schools 

Other  defects  in  the  study  of  history  in  the 
grades  are  apparent.  The  history  of  the  United 
States  is  studied  during  the  last  two  years  of  the 
grammar  grade,  when  the  boy  or  girl  is  from  twelve 
to  fourteen  years  old.  This  means  that  valuable 
time  has  been  lost,  that  long  before  this  age  the 
interest  of  the  child  should  have  been  awakened 
and  held  by  the  pictures  of  the  past.  Again  there 
is  little  evidence  to  show  that  history  is  united 
either  with  geography  or  literature.  In  several  of 
the  states  history  is  not  begun  until  geography  is 
finished,  and  in  others  history  is  absolutely  divorced 
from  the  instruction  in  English.  Text-books  are 
used  without  collateral  reading,  and  sometimes  the 
subject  is  divided  by  administrations,  sometimes  by 
pages.1  In  one  state  the  work  in  history  is  given 
during  the  first  three  years  in  the  form  of  stories, 
and  the  instructions  published  for  the  ensuing  four 
years  are,  to  repeat  the  previous  stories.  In  an- 
other state  civics  alternates  with  physiology.  In 
apparently  but  four  of  the  states  has  there  been 
any  consultation  whatever  with  competent  advisers 
in  historical  instruction  regarding  the  course  in 
history  to  be  prescribed  for  the  grades. 

Examination  therefore  seems  to  show  that  the 

1  In  one  state  the  text-book  used  during  the  eighth  year  is 
divided  into  ten  parts  of  about  thirty  pages  each,  and  one  part  is 
assigned  for  each  month. 


Inferior  Methods  167 

present  condition  of  instruction  in  history  in  the 
grades  below  the  high  school  is  defective  in  that 
uniformity  is  so  seldom  found,  that  there  is  no 
definite,  well-defined  object  in  teaching  history, 
that  when  an  object  is  presented  it  is  generally 
the  factitious  one  of  patriotism,  that  as  a  rule  the 
course  is  not  prescribed  by  experts  either  in  history 
or  in  education,  that  only  United  States  history 
and  state  history  are  taught,  that  history  is  not 
studied  in  connection  with  other  subjects  in  the 
curriculum,  that  a  slavish  use  is  too  often  made  of 
the  text-book,1  that  a  mechanical  division  of  the 
subject  matter  by  pages  or  by  administrations  is 
often  adopted,  and  that  all  instruction  in  this  sub- 
ject is  deferred  until  so  late  in  the  course. 

No  criticism  of  existing  institutions  is  justified 
unless  it  carries  with  it  a  recommendation  of 
changes  that  will  possibly  bring  improvement.  In 
addition  to  the  study  that  has  been  made  of  what 
is  actually  done  in  some  of  the  best  American 
schools,  a  careful  study  has  been  made  of  the 
programmes  of  the  work  in  history  in  the  schools 
of  England,  France,  and  Germany,  and  many  of 

1  In  1893,  82  schools  in  New  Haven  County,  Connecticut,  were 
asked,  "  Is  the  memoriter  method  used  ?  "  37  schools  answered 
"  Yes,"  39,  "  No,"  and  6,  "  In  part."  One  teacher  in  another 
county  was  "  not  particular  about  the  words  of  the  text  if  the  pupils 
gave  words  as  good." 


1 68  Lower  Schools 

these  schools  have  been  personally  visited.  It  is 
believed  that  the  following  scheme  of  work  in  his- 
tory can  not  only  be  justified  by  appeal  to  educa- 
tional theory,  but  that  it  can  also  be  defended  as 
practical  inasmuch  as  it  is  already  carried  out 
either  wholly  or  in  part  in  many  schools. 

Grade  III.  Stories  from  the  "  Iliad,"  the 
"  Odyssey,"  the  "^Eneid,"  the  Sagas,  the  "  Nibe- 
lungen  Lied ; "  the  stories  of  King  Arthur,  Roland, 
Hiawatha. 

Grade  IV.  Biographies  of  characters  promi- 
nent in  history  :  Greece,  —  Lycurgus,  Solon,  Darius, 
Miltiades,  Leonidas,  Pericles,  Socrates,  Alexander, 
Demosthenes,  Plutarch  ;  Rome,  —  Romulus,  Vir- 
ginia, Horatius,  Cincinnatus,  Regulus,  Hannibal, 
Cato,  Pompey,  Caesar,  Agricola ;  Germany,  — 
Arminius,  Alaric,  Charlemagne,  Henry  IV.,  Fred- 
erick Barbarossa,  Gutenberg,  Charles  V.,  Luther, 
Frederick  the  Great,  Bismarck  ;  France,  —  Clovis, 
Charlemagne,  Louis  IX.,  Joan  of  Arc,  Bayard, 
Palissy,  Francis  I.,  Henry  IV.,  Richelieu,  Napo- 
leon; England,  —  Alfred,  William  I.,  Richard  I., 
Warwick,  Elizabeth,  Sidney,  Raleigh,  Cromwell, 
Pitt,  Clive,  Nelson,  Stephenson,  Gladstone;  South- 
ern Europe,  —  Mohammed,  Francis  of  Assisi, 
Loyola,  Prince  Henry,  Isabella,  Columbus,  Lo- 
renzo de'  Medici,  Michel  Angelo,  Galileo,  Garibaldi; 


A  practicable  Scheme         169 

Northern  Europe, —  Robert  Bruce,  William  of 
Orange,  Henry  Hudson,  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
Rembrandt,  Peter  the  Great,  Kossuth;  America, 
-John  Smith,  Miles  Standish,  William  Penn, 
La  Salle,  Patrick  Henry,  Franklin,  Washington, 
Daniel  Boone,  Lincoln,  Lee. 

These  names  are  suggested,  not  as  a  final  selec- 
tion to  be  rigorously  adopted,  but  as  indicating  one 
way  of  arousing  interest  and  of  conveying  histor- 
ical information  at  the  age  when  ideas  of  time  and 
place  relations  are  only  imperfectly  developed,  but 
when  interest  in  individuals  is  keen  and  active. 
The  list  may  be  changed  in  toto,  but  the  principle 
still  be  retained. 

The  plan  for  these  two  years  (Grade  III.  and 
Grade  IV.)  implies  that  the  object  is  to  arouse 
interest,  that  the  method  used  is  to  be  wholly  the 
oral  one,  that  the  stories  are  to  be  united  with 
lessons  given  in  language  and  in  geography,  that 
the  selection  of  myths  and  stories  should  aim  to 
give  universal  rather  than  particular  notions,  and 
that  the  teacher  should  have  a  sufficient  acquaint- 
ance with  history  and  literature  to  be  able  to  de- 
cide wisely  concerning  the  selection  to  be  made. 

Grade  V.  Greek  and  Roman  History  to  800  A.D. 
circa. 


170  Lower  Schools 

Grade  VI.  Mediaeval  and  Modern  European  His- 
tory, from  the  close  of  the  first  period  to  the  present 
time. 

Grade  VII.    English  History. 

Grade  VIII.    American  History. 

The  reasons  for  recommending  the  order  of  sub- 
jects to  be  taken  up  from  Grade  V.  through  Grade 
VIII.,  are  the  same  as  those  given  by  the  Chair- 
man of  the  Committee  in  the  body  of  the  Report, 
and  need  not  be  repeated  here. 

The  reasons  for  recommending  the  preliminary 
survey  of  European  history  before  taking  up  the 
same  period  in  the  high  school  are  that  the  under- 
lying principle  is  similar  to  one  that  is  in  success- 
ful operation  in  Germany,  —  educational  principles 
discovered  by  one  group  of  instructors  and  success- 
fully put  into  practice  by  them  can  be  adapted  to 
meet  the  needs  of  other  groups  of  instructors  with- 
out the  necessity  of  rediscovery ;  that  it  gives  a 
good  basis  for  high-school  work,  since  it  follows  the 
law  "that  one  obtains  knowledge  by  adding  to  the 
ideas  which  one  already  has,  new  ideas  organically 
related  to  the  old;"1  that  the  substitution  of  a 
brief  course  in  European  history  for  a  portion  of 
the  American  history  now  taught  will  conduce  to 
a  better  appreciation  of  the  important  facts  in 

1  Above,  p.  17. 


European  History  171 

American  history,  and  that  as  a  result  the  pupil 
will  have  a  better  understanding  of  the  history  of 
America  after  one  year  of  special  study  given  to  it 
than  he  now  has  after  two  years'  study  without 
this  preliminary  acquaintance  with  European  his- 
tory ;  that  it  gives  an  outlook  into  the  world  of 
history  and  of  literature  to  those  who  cannot  com- 
plete a  high-school  course,  and  thus  gives  them 
resources  within  themselves  that  must  be  of  value 
in  their  future  lives;  that  it  would  do  something 
to  make  fruitful  what  is  now  too  often  a  barren 
waste,  —  the  curriculum  of  the  primary  and  the 
grammar  grades ;  that  its  adoption  would  do  some- 
thing to  raise  the  educational  and  professional 
qualifications  of  teachers,  since  the  knowledge  re- 
quired to  carry  it  out  would  be  more  extensive 
than  that  demanded  by  the  present  curriculum ; 
that  through  it  something  would  be  done  to  unify 
the  subjects  in  the  curriculum,  which  is  now  too 
often  vague  and  formless ;  that  since  many  schools 
in  America  now  have  a  course  similar  to  the  one 
here  advocated,  it  is  a  practical  one. 

The  plan  of  work  in  history  here  presented  is 
suggested,  not  as  being  absolutely  ideal  in  itself, 
but  as  one  that  more  nearly  approximates  that 
ideal  than  the  one  often  found  in  the  public  schools ; 
it  is  suggested  with  full  realization  of  the  fact  that 
it  probably  cannot  be  at  once  adopted  in  extenso 


172  Lower  Schools 

by  a  single  school ;  it  is  recommended  because  of 
the  belief  that  it  is  better  to  have  an  ideal  toward 
which  to  work  than  to  remain  content  with  unsat- 
isfactory conditions.1 

1  Lack  of  space  prevents  the  elaboration  of  the  principles  sug- 
gested in  this  report.  A  more  detailed  presentation  of  them  may 
be  found  in  articles  on  History  in  Elementary  Schools  and  Unity 
in  College  Entrance  History,  in  the  Educational  Review,  April, 
1891,  and  September,  1896;  and  also  in  Appendix  III  below. 


Appendix   III 
History  in  the  German  Gymnasia1 

BY    LUCY    M.    SALMON 

THE  paper  is  largely  based  on  a  personal  visit 
extending  over  three  months'  time  and  including 
32  gymnasia  in  18  different  places;  in  23  of  these 
gymnasia  70  classes  in  history  were  heard,  having 
an  aggregate  attendance  of  about  1 500  boys.  It 
was  the  plan  to  select  places  differing  widely  in 
conditions,  from  small  provincial  towns  to  large 
commercial  and  educational  centres,  and  also  those 
representing  quite  diverse  political  and  religious 
interests.  In  some  cases  all  the  gymnasia  in  the 
city  were  visited ;  in  some  the  work  in  every  class 
in  history  was  seen  ;  in  others  the  same  class  was 
seen  in  several  successive  lessons  in  history ;  the 
work  of  one  class  was  visited  in  history  and  in 

1  This  paper,  prepared  for  the  committee,  was  read  at  the  annual 
meeting  of  the  American  Historical  Association  held  at  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  December  28-30,  1897,  anc'  afterwards  printed  in  the  Educa- 
tional Review. 

'73 


174  German  Schools 

other  subjects,  and  also  all  of  the  classes  in  his- 
tory taught  by  one  instructor ;  the  same  instructor 
was  heard  in  other  subjects  as  well,  and  different 
sections  of  the  same  class  taught  by  different 
instructors  —  every  possible  combination  was  made 
as  regards  town,  school,  instructor,  and  class.  This 
has  been  supplemented  by  a  careful  study  of  the 
school  laws  and  programmes  of  the  twenty-six 
states  making  up  the  German  Empire,  including 
those  of  the  twelve  provinces  that  form  the  King- 
dom of  Prussia.  Except  for  incurring  the  charge 
of  generalizing  from  one  particular,  a  visit  to  one 
school  and  the  study  of  one  programme  would  have 
sufficed.  There  are  indeed  variations  in  detail,  but 
the  fundamental  principles  in  the  arrangement  of 
the  work  in  history  are  the  same  —  a  uniformity 
that  is  especially  noteworthy  in  view  of  the  contrast 
it  presents  to  our  own  system,  or  lack  of  system. 
The  result  of  this  study  gives  a  composite  photo- 
graph of  the  work  in  history  in  the  schools  for 
boys,  which  bears  a  striking  likeness  to  each  of  the 
individual  parts  making  up  the  photograph. 

The  reign  of  Louis  Philippe  began  without  glory 
and  ended  without  honor  ;  but  for  one  thing  it  is 
entitled  to  the  grateful  remembrance,  not  alone  of 
France,  but  of  America  as  well.  In  1831  M. 
Cousin,  holding  a  government  commission,  visited 
the  schools  of  Prussia,  Saxony,  and  Frankfort, 


The  Gymnasium  175 

and,  on  his  return,  published  those  celebrated  re- 
ports which  for  the  first  time  made  the  German 
system  of  education  familiar  in  France  and  subse- 
quently in  this  country.  From  that  time  to  the 
present  our  interest  in  German  education  has  been 
a  growing  one. 

It  has,  however,  been  naturally  the  German 
universities  whose  organization  Americans  have 
studied  —  the  German  schools  have  less  often  been 
visited,  and  their  place  in  the  educational  system  is 
less  clearly  seen.  Just  what  this  part  is,  however, 
must  be  briefly  recalled  in  order  to  understand  the 
place  in  the  curriculum  occupied  by  history. 

The  German  gymnasium  —  whether  the  gymna- 
sium proper  with  its  course  based  on  the  classics 
and  mathematics,  the  real-gymnasium  which  omits 
Greek  from  its  curriculum,  or  the  oberrealschule 
which  omits  both  Latin  and  Greek  —  the  German 
school,  whatever  its  variety,  takes  the  boy  when 
nine  years  old,  and  at  eighteen  sends  him  to  the 
university,  the  higher  technical  schools,  or  into 
business  life  with  a  well-rounded  symmetrical 
education. 

This  symmetrical  education  is  made  possible 
through  the  careful  construction  of  the  school  cur- 
riculum. The  curriculum  is  a  sacred  thing,  not 
lightly  formed  or  to  be  tampered  with  when  made, 
for  into  it  goes  the  best  trained  and  most  expert 


ij6  German  Schools 

educational  service  that  the  state  can  command. 
The  curriculum  in  every  state  is  the  same  in  the 
same  class  of  schools,  and  the  uniformity  among 
the  twenty-six  different  state  systems  is  far  greater 
than  among  the  forty-five  states  of  America.  It 
may  or  it  may  not  be  due  to  the  conscious  influence 
of  Herbart, — in  many  places  there  is  a  positive 
disclaimer  of  all  such  influence,  —  but,  whatever 
the  cause,  the  result  is  everywhere  a  curriculum 
that  gives  a  compact,  articulated,  organic  system,  in 
strong  contrast  to  our  own.  The  result  may  be  in 
part  attributed,  in  spite  of  disclaimers,  to  the  influ- 
ence of  Herbart,  and  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the 
Germans  as  individuals  are  less  prone  than  the 
Americans  to  fly  off  on  tangents  of  their  own,  and 
consequently  have  a  capacity  for  working  together 
that  shows  itself  as  strongly  in  educational  as  in 
municipal  affairs.  The  curriculum  is  a  unit ;  it  is 
complete  in  itself,  but  it  represents,  at  the  same 
time,  one  stage  in  the  development  of  the  educa- 
tional system.  This  fact  must  never  be  lost  sight 
of,  or  the  corresponding  fact  that  the  American 
programme  of  studies  presents  an  absolute  con- 
trast to  the  German  LcJirplan.  The  American  pro- 
gramme is  often  regarded  as  a  convenient  vehicle 
for  conveying  the  instruction  desired  by  interested 
parties.  Does  a  state  legislature  believe  that  the 
schools  exist  for  the  purpose  of  implanting  pa- 


Curriculum  177 

triotism,  they  are  forthwith  commanded  to  teach 
American  history ;  if  a  group  of  business  men 
believe  that  the  schools  should  have  a  bread-and- 
butter  aim,  stenography  and  typewriting  are  made 
compulsory ;  if  one  branch  of  the  Church  con- 
siders that  the  schools  exist  for  the  purpose  of 
teaching  religion,  the  study  of  the  catechism  is 
demanded ;  if  an  association  deems  that  it  is  the 
first  duty  of  the  schools  to  inculcate  the  principles 
advocated  by  that  association,  it  asks  for  the  study 
of  physiology  with  special  reference  to  the  inju- 
rious effects  of  alcoholic  drinks.  The  American 
programme  represents  the  idiosyncrasies  of  in- 
dividuals, not  the  wisdom  of  the  many.  It  must 
therefore  be  seen  that  the  place  occupied  by  his- 
tory in  the  German  gymnasia,  unlike  its  place 
in  the  American  schools,  is  given  it  because  the 
most  eminent  educators  of  Germany  have  agreed 
upon  the  place  it  ought  to  have  in  the  educational 
system. 

What,  then,  are  the  characteristic  features  of 
history  instruction  in  Germany,  especially  those 
that  differ  from  instruction  in  history  in  America  ? 

Dr.  Holmes  was  wont  to  say  that  it  was  neces- 
sary to  begin  a  boy's  education  with  the  education 
of  his  grandfather.  In  a  similar  way,  any  dis- 
cussion of  history  in  the  German  schools  must 
begin  with  the  German  boy,  —  a  boy  much  like 


1 78  German  Schools 

other  boys,  but  living  in  a  military  atmosphere, 
where  obedience  is  the  first  law  of  men,  as  order 
is  heaven's  first  law  elsewhere,  —  a  boy  who,  from 
his  earliest  recollections,  is  taught  that  every  one 
obeys  some  one  else,  —  "  Children  obey  their  par- 
ents, the  wife  obeys  her  husband,  the  husband 
obeys  the  king,  the  king  obeys  God,"  —  a  boy  who 
is  taught  respect  for  authority,  but  a  boy  who  is 
also  taught  that  self-control  and  self-knowledge 
are  as  much  a  part  and  an  object  of  education 
as  is  the  training  of  the  mind.  Until  the  boy  is 
ready  for  the  university,  that  is,  until  he  is  eigh- 
teen or  nineteen  years  old,  he  is  a  minor ;  he  is  so 
regarded  by  his  instructors  and  he  so  regards  him- 
self. He  is  under  a  constant  supervision  that,  to 
an  American  boy,  would  be  intolerable  ;  he  is  in 
the  gymnasium  to  be  taught,  and  it  is  not  expected 
that,  before  leaving  the  gymnasium,  he  should  ex- 
press his  personal  opinion  on  any  subject  under 
consideration.1  Instruction  thus  seems  to  be  freed 
from  some  of  the  questions  of  discipline  that  ac- 
company instruction  here,  and  the  instructor  is 

1  The  director  of  one  gymnasium  said,  "  Our  boys  are  not  en- 
couraged to  speculate  about  what  historians  themselves  do  not 
know."  Another  remarked,  "  It  is  inconceivable  that  boys  in  the 
gymnasium  should  discuss  political  questions  about  which  mature 
men  disagree."  I  did  not  hear  a  boy  asked  his  opinion  on  any 
subject  in  the  classroom,  or  a  single  boy  ask  a  question  ;  everything 
was  apparently  given  and  accepted  on  authority. 


Discipline  179 

unhampered  by  the  apparent  necessity  of  sacri- 
ficing legitimate  drill  to  the  immediate  object  of 
maintaining  a  specious  interest. 

The  German  instructor  thus  finds  at  hand  a 
military  system  that  is  of  help  in  the  method  of 
instruction,  and  he  also  finds  a  programme  of 
studies  arranged  by  expert  educators  and  un- 
affected by  political  or  religious  considerations  ;  a 
programme  the  key-note  of  which  is  concentration 
—  concentration  of  work,  concentration  of  thought, 
concentration  of  time. 

The  part,  then,  that  history  plays  in  the  curricu- 
lum is  not  an  independent  one,  but  one  correlated 
with  other  subjects.  Yet  the  place  that  each 
subject  has  in  this  articulated  system  is  clearly 
understood  and  defined.  In  historical  instruction, 
according  to  the  educational  laws  of  Saxony,  a 
knowledge  of  the  epoch-making  events  in  the 
history  of  the  world,  and  of  their  mutual  relation, 
origin,  and  development  is  to  be  specially  sought. 
The  Prussian  programme  of  1882  states  the  object 
to  be  "  to  arouse  in  the  pupils  respect  for  the  moral 
greatness  of  men  and  nations,  to  make  them  con- 
scious of  their  own  imperfect  insight,  and  to 
give  them  the  ability  to  read  understandingly  the 
greatest  historical  classics."  This  position  Prussia 
has  modified  by  the  programme  of  1892  into  one 
involving  special  emphasis  on  the  development  of 


180  German  Schools 

Prussia's  greatness  and  the  centring  of  the  new 
national  life  about  her ;  but  her  former  position  is 
the  one  rather  held  by  the  other  German  states. 
History  is  thus  to  be  an  organic  part  of  the 
school  curriculum,  but  it  is  also  to  have  a  distinct 
definite  aim  of  its  own.  That  aim  is  to  be  the 
placing  of  high  ideals  before  the  boy,  the  develop- 
ment of  his  moral  character  through  the  study  of 
these  ideals ;  it  is  to  be  a  part  of  "  liberal  culture 
and  is  to  serve  as  a  means  of  intellectual  train- 
ing." 

The  work  in  history,  in  the  gymnasium  itself, 
must  be  considered  under  the  two  heads  —  subject- 
matter  and  method. 

As  regards  subject-matter,  the  nine  years  may 
be  divided  into  three  groups,  the  first  group  com- 
prising the  first  two  years,  the  second  the  follow- 
ing four  years,  and  the  third  the  last  three  years. 
During  the  first  two  years,  the  boy,  then  nine  or 
ten  years  old,  is  given  the  legends  from  classical 
and  German  mythology.  The  next  four  years  form 
a  second  group.  The  boy,  during  this  period,  is 
from  eleven  to  fourteen  years  old,  and  he  begins  a 
systematic  study  of  Greek  and  Roman  history,  fol- 
lowed by  a  study  of  mediaeval  and  modern  history, 
often  with  special  reference  to  the  history  of  Ger- 
many. The  last  three,  when  the  boy  is  from  fifteen 
to  eighteen  years  old,  form  the  third  group ;  and, 


Subjects  181 

in  this  group,  he  has  a  second  course  in  classical, 
mediaeval,  and  modern  history. 

This,  then,  gives  us  the  three  concentric  circles 
of  historical  instruction  of  Germany.  During  the 
first  circle  of  two  years  no  attempt  is  made  to  give 
formal  instruction  in  chronological  sequence;  the 
work  is  introductory  to  that  of  the  subsequent 
course,  and  it  is  intended  by  it  to  bring  before  the 
imagination  of  the  boy  in  a  series  of  vivid  pictures 
the  deeds  of  great  heroes,  to  fill  his  thoughts  with 
them,  and  thus  to  lay  the  foundation  for  the  later 
more  connected  historical  instruction.1 

This  systematic  instruction  begins  with  the  third 
year  in  the  gymnasium,  and  during  the  remainder 
of  his  course,  the  work  in  history  and  geography 
forms  the  two  regular  concentric  circles.  The 
object  in  the  first  of  these  is  to  give  a  connected 
account  of  the  origin  and  development  of  the  great 
events  in  the  world's  history,  and  especially  of  the 
relation  of  Germany  to  these  events.2  The  work 
of  the  four  years,  therefore,  begins  at  the  begin- 
ning, and  comprises  a  study  for  one  year  of  Greek 
and  Roman  history,  with  the  addition  of  the  little 
necessarily  pertaining  to  it  from  the  history  of  the 
Oriental  peoples.  The  next  two  years  —  that  is, 

1  Prussian  Lehrplan,  1892,  §  7. 

2  Die   Schulordnung  fiir   die  humanistischen    Gymnasien   im 
Konigreich  Bayern,  1891,  §  14. 


1 82  German  Schools 

the  boy's  fourth  and  fifth  years  in  school  —  are 
given  to  mediaeval  and  early  modern  history,  but 
mediaeval  history  is  treated  as  predominantly  Ger- 
man, and  the  theory  that  the  history  of  the  Middle 
Ages  is,  in  reality,  a  history  of  Germany,  is  com- 
monly accepted.  With  the  close  of  the  Middle 
Ages  the  point  of  view  is  changed  somewhat,  since 
modern  history  cannot  be  treated  from  the  distinc- 
tively German  standpoint,  as  can  the  previous 
period.  But  if  modern  history  cannot  be  treated 
as  world  history,  it  is,  at  least,  always  regarded 
and  treated  from  the  European  standpoint.1  Es- 
pecially during  the  last  of  the  four  years  is  the 
material  handled  from  the  general  European,  not 
from  the  special  German  or  Prussian,  point  of 
view.2  During  the  second  circle  of  systematic 
study,  or  the  third  circle  if  the  introductory  work 
is  considered,  the  boy,  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  begins 
"  the  second  wandering  through  the  broad  field  of 
history,"  but,  with  the  object  of  laying  the  foun- 
dations deeper,  of  giving  a  broader  outlook,  of 
understanding  present  conditions  through  their 
development  in  the  past,  of  building  upon  the  love 
of  the  fatherland,  that  has  been  awakened  in  the 
earliest  years,  a  sense  of  personal  responsibility  to 
it,  of  inspiring  high  ideals  and  creating  ethical 

1  Oskar  Jager,  Geschichte,  82,  83. 
*  Ibid.,  49. 


Three  Circles  183 

standards.1  Professor  Jager  has  well  pointed  outa 
that  every  age  has  its  special  favorite  ideas  and 
prevailing  interests,  and  that  these  necessarily 
affect  the  historical  instruction  in  the  higher 
schools.3  To-day  such  interest  is  social  and  eco- 
nomic, and  it  is,  therefore,  to  be  expected  that 
social  and  economic  questions  shall  be  treated  with 
a  certain  partiality,  and  this  is  especially  seen  dur- 
ing the  second  review  of  historical  events. 

What  is  the  difference  in  the  point  of  view  in 
the  three  surveys  of  history  ?  It  may  perhaps  be 
said  that,  in  the  first  circle,  heroes,  in  the  second, 
states  —  particularly  the  German  state,  in  the  third 
circle,  the  world,  form  the  objective  points.  High 
ideals  of  action  are  the  end  sought  in  the  first  circle, 
a  connected  account  of  the  great  events  in  the  world's 
history  that  of  the  second,  a  knowledge  of  the  civil- 
izing influences  that  have  prevailed  in  the  world's 
history  that  of  the  third.  If  the  centre  of  each 

1  Das  Kohere  Schulwesen  int  Konigreiche  Sachsen,  1889  ;  Lehr~ 
plane  und  Lehraufgaben  fur  die  hoheren  Schulen,  Berlin,  1892. 

2  Geschichte,  74. 

8  This  is  illustrated  by  the  interest  taken  during  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries  in  dogmatic  religious  questions  ;  at  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  in  literary  and  aesthetic  subjects  ; 
during  the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  the  time  of  the  pre- 
dominance of  the  Hegelian  philosophy,  in  the  philosophy  of  history. 
The  history  of  each  period  shows  more  or  less  clearly  the  prevailing 
interests  of  the  age  when  it  was  written. 


184  German  Schools 

circle  is  sometimes  Germany,  and  if  it  is  a  part 
of  the  imperial  theory  that  the  radii  of  the  circle 
should  begin  at  the  circumference  and  verge  toward 
the  centre,  it  is  more  often  found  in  practice  that 
the  centre  forms  only  a  starting-point  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  radii  diverging  to  the  circumfer- 
ence. Especially  in  German  Switzerland  is  an 
appreciation  found  of  the  fact  that  it  is  unwise  to 
distort  history  in  order  to  magnify  Switzerland  or 
to  foster  an  exaggerated  patriotism.  In  Germany 
itself,  while  there  is  acquiescence  in  the  imperial 
theory  that  the  cultivation  of  the  national  spirit 
should  be  a  special  aim  of  historical  instruction, 
there  is  also  a  recognition  of  the  fact,  as  Professor 
Russell  has  pointed  out,  that  the  theory  is  peda- 
gogically  shortsighted,  "  that  patriotism  should  be 
more  than  mere  enthusiasm,  more  enduring  than 
the  frothy  exuberance  of  spirits  that  arises  from 
the  contemplation  of  great  deeds ;  that  love  of 
country  and  of  king  depends  upon  a  firm  and 
unchangeable  character."  l  If  Sedan  Day  is 
observed  as  an  event  marking  a  victory  over  a 
rival  power,  rather  than  as  a  day  that  means  the 
unification  of  Germany,  it  is  because  that  event  is, 
as  yet,  necessarily  regarded  at  short  range ;  if  the 
day  is  universally  celebrated  throughout  the  Ger- 

1  History  and  Geography  in  the  Higher  Schools  of  Germany, 
in  The  School  Review,  May,  1897. 


Effect  of  the  Circles          185 

man  schools,  it  is  because  the  consciousness  is  yet 
strong  that  it  was  the  Prussian  schoolmaster  that 
won  Alsace  and  Lorraine.  That  exalted  patriotism 
that  calls  the  whole  world  akin  does  not  immedi- 
ately follow  a  triumphant  national  victory,  but 
Germany  will  soon  look  at  those  events  of  German 
history  that  concern  her  immediate  present  in  their 
true  perspective. 

What  has  the  boy  gained  as  a  result  of  this 
threefold  division  of  subject-matter  into  concentric 
circles  ? 

Compulsory  education  keeps  him  in  school  until 
he  is  fourteen  years  old,  that  is,  until  he  has  com- 
pleted the  introductory  work  and  the  first  circle  of 
systematic  study  of  history.  If  circumstances  then 
compel  him  to  leave  the  gymnasium,  as  forty  per 
cent  of  German  boys  are  obliged  to  do,1  he  has  in 
hand  such  an  outline  of  the  great  events  in  the 
world's  history  as  ought  to  save  him  from  prema- 
ture or  hasty  judgments.  But,  if  he  completes  the 
gymnasial  course,  he  has  gained  not  only  this,  but 
he  has  learned  something  of  the  deeper  meaning 
of  history.  He  has  a  knowledge  of  the  art  and 
literature  of  Greece  that  has  rounded  out  his  par- 
tial knowledge  of  these  subjects  gained  through 
the  Greek  classics  he  has  read ;  he  understands 
the  organization  of  the  government  of  the  Romans 

1  The  School  Review,  October,  1897. 


1 86  German  Schools 

and  what  has  been  contributed  to  the  civilization 
of  the  world  by  that  eminent!)  practical  people ; 
the  Middle  Ages  are  not,  to  him,  dark  ages,  for  he 
understands  the  place  in  that  period  occupied  by 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire ;  modern  history  means 
to  him,  not  the  unrelated  history  of  Germany  alone, 
but  it  means  the  study  of  new  conditions  made  pos- 
sible through  the  discovery  of  America,  and  the 
industrial  development  of  the  fifteenth  and  six- 
teenth centuries;  he  compares  the  centralization 
of  power  under  Louis  XIV.  with  the  low  inorganic 
form  of  political  life  in  Germany  during  the  corre- 
sponding period,  and  learns  the  odds  against  which 
Germany  has  struggled  in  reaching  her  present  po- 
sition. He  has,  from  the  time  he  was  nine  years 
old,  had  constantly  put  before  him  for  nine  years 
these  developments,  and  has  been  made  to  realize 
"that  mankind  is  an  ethical  whole."  The  method 
has  been  called  one  of  concentric  circles,  but  is, 
rather,  one  of  an  ever-ascending  spiral  from  the 
apex  of  which  an  outlook  over  the  past  is  obtained. 
To  change  the  figure,  the  three  surveys  are  the 
three  readings  through  which  any  legislative 
measure  must  pass  before  it  becomes  an  act 
accomplished.  As  the  three  readings  have  given 
ample  time  for  discussion,  for  sifting  essentials 
from  non-essentials,  for  presenting  all  possible 
arguments  for  and  against  a  proposed  measure, 


Correlation  187 

so  the  three  surveys  must  leave  in  the  boy's  mind 
a  residuum  of  all  that  is  best  in  the  world's  history, 
and  this  residuum  becomes  his  abiding  possession. 
The  question  naturally  arises  as  to  how  far,  in 
the  selection  of  the  subject-matter,  the  psycho- 
logical condition  of  the  boy  is  considered,  and  how 
far  both  matter  and  treatment  are  adapted  to  this 
condition.  It  must  have  been  inferred,  from  what 
has  already  been  said,  that  this  psychological  con- 
dition has  not  only  never  been  lost  sight  of,  but 
that  it  has  been  made  the  basis  of  arrangement  at 
every  step  of  the  way.  "  The  primary  condition  of 
historical  perception  is  the  readiness  to  think  or  to 
feel  the  past  as  present,"  says  Professor  Jager.1 
This  ability  to  feel  the  past,  the  development  of 
the  historical  imagination,  is  the  object  of  the 
instruction  in  the  first  part  of  the  course.  During 
the  second  division  of  the  course,  "  the  instruction 
as  a  whole,"  says  Professor  Jager,  "must  give  the 
boy  forceful  suggestions,  strong  impulses ;  must 
work  from  different  sides  for  the  one  end  of  giving 
a  check  and  a  counterpoise  to  the  distracting,  self- 
willed,  and  disintegrating  tendencies  that  beset  this 
time  of  life." 2  With  the  broadening  out  of  the 
boy's  sympathies  and  interests  he  is  brought,  during 
the  latter  part  of  his  course,  face  to  face  with  those 
complex  questions  of  present  interest  for  the  con- 

1  Geschichtt,  9.  2  Ibid.,  28. 


1 88  German  Schools 

sideration  of  which  there  is  needed  a  mind  stored 
with  knowledge,  and  the  boy  learns  "  a  respect  for 
knowledge  for  the  knowledge's  own  sake."  1 

The  importance  that  is  attached  to  historical 
instruction  is  evident  not  only  from  the  care  with 
which  the  course  of  study  is  planned,  but  from  the 
time  allotted  to  it.  This  is  an  average  of  three 
hours  per  week,  including  the  time  given  geogra- 
phy, during  the  entire  nine  years'  course,  a  total  of 
twenty-seven  hours  during  the  course,  or  one-ninth 
of  the  entire  time  throughout  the  course  is  given  to 
these  subjects.2 

1  Geschichte,  67. 

8  The  following  list  will  indicate  the  amount  of  time  allotted  to 
history  in  the  different  gymnasia  :  — 

Altenburg,  Friedrichs-Gymnasium  .  .  .  .  .  27 
Berlin,  Konigstadtisches  Gymnasium  .  .  .  .26 
Bonn,  Oberrealschule  .......  32 

Bremen,  Gymnasium 34 

Brunswick,  Gymnasium  Martino-Katharineum  .         .         .26 

Frankfurt,  Goethe-Gymnasium 30 

Freiburg,  Oberrealschule  .......     27 

Hamburg,  Gelehrtenschule  des  Johanneums      .         .         .28 
Heidelberg  Gymnasium    .......     24 

Jena,  Gymnasium  Carolo-Alexandrinum     .         .         .         .28 

Landeshut,  Realgymnasium       .         .         .         .         .         .21 

Leipzig,  Nicolai-Gymnasium 30 

Magdeburg,  Guericke-Oberrealschule  .  .  .  -3° 
Munich,  Konigliches  Maximilians-Gymnasium  .  .  .  25 
Neu-Strelitz,  Gymnasium  Carolinum  .  .  .  .  25 

Oldenburg,  Grossherzogliches  Gymnasium          .         .         .     27 


Time  Allowance  189 

But  it  must  not  be  inferred  that  the  historical 
instruction  the  boy  receives  is  confined  to  the 
three  hours  per  week  of  formal  instruction  in  this 
line.  Extreme  specialization  has  no  place  in  a 
German  gymnasium.  Instead  of  each  person  im- 
agining that  he  has  preempted  a  portion,  large  or 
small,  of  the  field  of  knowledge,  and  keeping  jeal- 
ous watch  lest  some  one  else  trespass  on  his  pre- 
serves, each  instructor  seeks  to  bind  his  subject 
with  every  other.  In  the  hours  allotted  to  religion 
the  boys  read  from  the  Greek  New  Testament ;  and 
Oriental  history,  as  well  as  church  history,  is  taught, 
though  these  are  in  the  history  classes  proper. 
Herodotus  and  Livy  are  not  regarded  as  mere 
vehicles  for  teaching  Greek  and  Latin  construction, 
but  are  taught  as  Greek  and  Roman  history,  and 
much  of  English  and  French  history  is  taught 
through  these  languages. 

But  even  this  correlation  of  history  with  every 
other  subject  is  not  all.  One  may  study  the  pro- 
grammes and  visit  classes,  and  yet  not  understand 
or  see  clearly  all  of  the  influences  at  work  that 

Rudolstadt,  Fiirstliches  Gymnasium 26 

Strassburg,  Protestantisches  Gymnasium    .         .         .         .25 
Stuttgart,  Eberhard-Ludwigs-Gymnasium  .         .         .     25 

Weimar,  Wilhelm-Ernstisches  Gymnasium         .         .         .28 

It  is  thus  seen  that  while  the  general  average  is  27  hours,  II 
gymnasia  have  27  or  more  hours,  while  only  9  have  less. 


190  German  Schools 

make  for  history.  Maps,  charts,  collections  of 
pictures  freely  used ;  busts  of  all  the  authors  read 
in  the  school ;  quotations  from  great  men  inscribed 
on  the  walls  of  classrooms ;  the  memorizing  of 
historical  poems  and  passages  from  historical 
dramas ;  the  observance  of  national  and  historic 
holidays ;  most  of  all,  frequent  excursions  to  points 
of  historical  interest,  —  all  this  is  history,  all  these 
are  influences  that  make  history  unconsciously 
grow  into  the  boy  and  become  a  part  of  his  very 
self.  History  is  developed  in  him,  he  is  developed 
through  it. 

The  subject  of  method  of  instruction  must  not 
be  omitted,  although  it  will  demand  but  a  brief 
consideration. 

The  method  is,  in  essence,  the  same  throughout 
the  course.  In  the  first  part  it  is  story-telling,  pure 
and  simple  ;  in  the  second  part  it  is  pure  narra- 
tion ;  in  the  third  part  it  becomes  more  formal  and 
resembles,  somewhat,  a  college  lecture.  During 
the  first  of  the  hour  the  class  is  questioned  on 
what  has  been  narrated  during  the  previous  lesson  ; 
then  comes  the  narration  of  fresh  material,  and, 
with  the  younger  boys,  the  hour  is  closed  with 
questions  on  what  has  just  been  narrated.  The 
theory  is  that  the  boy  learns  best  from  the  living 
voice,  that  thus  his  interest  is  aroused  and  main- 
tained, and  that  history,  in  this  way,  becomes  to 


Methods  191 

him  a  living,  life-giving  presence.  The  work  of 
the  teacher  is  supplemented  by  the  use  of  a  text- 
book (Leitfaden),  but  this  contains  only  the  barest 
outline  of  the  events  and  is  in  no  sense  a  text-book 
in  the  American  usage  of  the  term.  The  instruc- 
tor cannot  expect  that  the  boy  will  spend  more 
than  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  in  preparation  of 
his  history  work,  and,  therefore,  he  is  practically 
restricted  to  the  use  of  the  narrative  method.  It 
is  the  German  theory  that  an  excessive  amount  of 
outside  study  should  not  be  demanded  or  given ; 
that  it  is  best  for  the  boys  to  get  as  much  edu- 
cation from  each  other  as  possible  ;  that,  since  one 
plans  to  become  a  lawyer,  another  a  physician, 
a  third  a  business  man,  and  a  fourth  a  teacher, 
each  should  talk  over  with  the  other  his  plans  for 
the  future,  and  thus  become  educated  in  ways  not 
reached  by  the  school. 

The  narrative  method  does  not  lend  itself  easily, 
especially  in  the  higher  grades,  to  securing  some  of 
the  best  results  that  are  secured  in  the  best  Ameri- 
can schools.  It  must  seem  to  Americans  to  fail  in 
developing  the  power  of  independent  judgment, 
and  to  afford  no  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of 
that  faculty  known  in  the  child  as  curiosity,  and  in 
the  man  as  research.  The  boy  absorbs  and  assimi- 
lates, but  the  creative  faculty  lies  dormant.  That 
this  should  be  so,  however,  is  a  part  of  the  German 


192  German  Schools 

theory  of  education.  But  the  German  method 
does  secure  certain  admirable  ends.  On  the  posi- 
tive side  it  results  in  concentration  of  attention, 
alertness  of  mind,  quickness  of  apprehension,  and 
an  enviable  ability  to  grasp  the  salient  features  of 
a  subject  considered  as  a  whole.  The  double  and 
triple  course  gives  constant  opportunity  for  com- 
parison, especially  during  the  last  survey,  and  this 
basis  for  comparison  and  the  constant  advantage 
taken  of  it  are  one  of  the  most  valuable  parts  of 
the  method.  On  its  negative  side  the  German 
method  has  the  advantage  that  it  leaves  little  room 
for  crudity  of  opinion  or  for  generalizations  from 
insufficient  data. 

The  study  of  history  in  the  German  gymnasia 
thus  shows  seven  distinctive  features :  first,  the 
entire  field  of  history  is  covered  in  three  distinct 
surveys ;  second,  the  work  in  history  is  correlated 
with  every  other  subject  in  the  curriculum,  and,  in 
a  sense,  becomes  its  unifying  force ;  third,  ample 
time  is  given  for  its  consideration,  and  it  receives 
the  same  serious  treatment  as  do  other  subjects  in 
the  course ;  fourth,  the  division  of  material  and  the 
method  of  treatment  are  based  on  the  boy's  psy- 
chological development ;  fifth,  the  narrative  method 
of  instruction  gives  the  boy  a  vivid  impression  of 
reality  of  the  past ;  sixth,  the  course  is  complete 
in  itself,  and,  at  the  same  time,  it  forms  an  ideal 


Advantages  193 

preparation  for  university  work ;  seventh,  every 
teacher  of  history  is  an  absolute  master  of  the  sub- 
ject taught. 

What  are  the  lessons  to  be  learned  by  Ameri- 
cans from  this  examination  of  historical  instruction 
in  the  German  gymnasia  f 

The  first  great  lesson  we  should  all  do  well  to 
heed  is  this  :  That  the  course  in  history  serves  the 
double  purpose  of  being  complete  in  itself  and  of 
being  an  ideal  preparation  for  university  work. 

The  course  is  complete  in  itself ;  because,  if  the 
boy  does  not  go  beyond  the  gymnasittm,  or,  if  he 
leaves  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  year  in  school,  he 
has  gained  a  wide  outlook  into  the  future  because 
of  this  thorough  study  of  the  past ;  he  has  gained 
a  proper  historical  perspective  and  he  has  learned 
that  "  hinter  dem  Gebirge  sind  auch  Leute."  He 
has  resources  within  himself  that  must  contribute 
not  only  to  the  upbuilding  of  his  own  character, 
but  that  must  redound  to  the  advantage  of  the 
community  in  which  his  lot  is  cast.  How  great  an 
advantage  this  broad  outlook  is  can  be  seen  by 
comparing  the  course  in  history  in  the  gymnasia 
with  that  of  the  normal  schools,  where  only  Ger- 
man history  is  taught.  One  can  but  feel  that  the 
young  men  who  are  to  be  the  teachers  in  the 
volksschule  are  losing  much,  that  the  volksschnle 
are  losing  much  through  them,  when  the  historical 


194  German  Schools 

horizon  is  bounded  by  Germany.  Such  minds 
must,  in  middle  life,  be  stunted  and  dwarfed  be- 
cause, in  early  years,  they  have  lacked  that  mental 
and  spiritual  inspiration  that  the  study  of  the 
largest  life  must  give.  Equally  stunted  and 
dwarfed  must  be  the  minds  of  our  own  American 
boys  and  girls  when  they  leave  school  at  the  end 
of  the  grammar  grade  with  a  knowledge,  insuf- 
ficient at  best,  of  only  American  history.  It  must 
indeed  be  said  that  he  who  knows  only  American 
history  does  not  at  all  know  that  history.  "  The 
profounder  our  study  of  ourselves,"  says  Professor 
Sloane,  "  the  stronger  will  grow  our  conviction  of 
the  organic  relation  between  our  own  history  and 
that  of  the  world."  16  American  history  is  in  the 
air,  —  a  balloon  sailing  in  mid  heaven,  —  unless  it 
is  anchored  fast  to  European  history.  It  is  no 
more  true  to  say  that  American  history  begins  in 
1492  than  it  is  true  to  say  that  a  man's  life  begins 
when  he  goes  into  business  for  himself.  English 
history  does  not  begin  with  the  reign  of  William 
III.,  or  French  history  with  the  Third  Republic, 
or  German  history  with  the  establishment  of  the 
present  Empire.  A  new  stage  of  development  in 
each  country  is  marked  by  these  events,  and  the 
development  of  Europe,  on  the  New  World  soil, 
is  but  a  corresponding  one.  America,  like  Europe, 

1  History  and  Democracy,  in  American  Historical  Review,  I.  22. 


American  Conditions          195 

is  the  heir  of  all  the  ages,  and  the  American  boy 
has  the  right  to  enter  into  his  inheritance.  The 
great  demand  in  industrial  life  to-day  is  for  such  a 
change  in  methods  of  work  as  will  have  regard  to 
the  effects  of  work  on  the  laborer  rather  than  the 
results  on  the  product.  To  the  attainment  of  this 
end  the  work  of  William  Morris  and  of  John  Rus- 
kin  has  been  directed,  and  to  the  attainment  of 
a  similar  end  must  the  work  of  educators  tend. 

How  disastrous  this  restricted  view  of  the  past 
may  be  on  our  political,  industrial,  and  educational 
growth  is  easily  imagined  when  it  is  recalled  that  it 
was  estimated,  in  1886,  that  eighty  per  cent  of  the 
pupils  in  the  public  schools  never  reach  the  high 
school.1  Of  those  who  pass  through  the  high 
school,  but  a  small  proportion  enter  college.  But 
it  is  not  only  possible,  it  is  more  than  proba- 
ble, that  even  this  small  percentage  who  go 
through  the  high  school,  or  through  college,  will 
complete  their  school  or  college  life  knowing  noth- 
ing of  historical  conditions  or  developments.  A 
man  with  this  lack  of  preparation  may  enter  Con- 
gress and  legislate  on  financial  matters  in  absolute 
ignorance  of  the  history  of  finance  ;  he  legislates 
on  labor  questions  with  no  knowledge  of  the  agra- 
rian difficulties  of  Rome,  the  peasants'  rebellions 

1  F.  N.  Thorpe,  The  Study  of  History  in  American  Colleges, 
232,  233. 


196  German  Schools 

of  the  Middle  Ages,  or  the  national  workshops  of 
Louis  Blanc.  He  legislates  gold-standard  educa- 
tors out  of  office  at  the  West,  and  silver  advocates 
out  of  office  in  the  East,  not  knowing  that,  for 
four  hundred  years,  Luther  and  the  Wartburg 
have  stood  for  independence  of  judgment  and  the 
search  for  truth.  Not  only  is  he  lacking  in  the 
actual  knowledge  that  history  affords,  but  he  lacks 
still  more  that  mental  training  that  history  gives 
in  analysis,  comparison,  classification;  in  holding 
the  judgment  in  suspense  until  all  sides  of  a  ques- 
tion have  been  presented.  The  German  boy  is 
given  both  a  body  of  facts  and  a  mental  training 
that  ought  to  keep  him  from  superficial  judgments 
or  hasty  conclusions. 

But  the  special  object  of  the  German  gymnasial 
course  is  to  prepare  for  the  university.1  And  here, 
in  the  case  of  the  boy  who  enters  the  university,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  boy  who  does  not,  the  German 
arrangement  of  historical  work  seems  superior  to 
our  own.  The  university  knows  precisely  what 
work  in  history  has  been  done,  and,  therefore,  it 
can  assume  this  admirable  preparation  and  shape 
its  advanced  courses  accordingly.  But  the  Ameri- 
can university  or  college  makes  its  entrance  require- 

1  "  If  one  seeks  to  set  forth  in  a  word  the  real  specific  purpose 
of  gymnasial  training,  it  is  clearly  to  prepare  for  the  university." 
—  Oskar  Jager,  Geschichtt,  4. 


University  Relations          197 

ment  in  history  in  deference  to  the  antiquated  idea 
that  preparation  in  history  should  be  the  one  that 
will  most  assist  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek,  and 
that  every  boy  should  know  something  of  the  his- 
tory of  his  own  country.  The  boy,  therefore, 
studies  American  history  in  the  grammar  grades, 
and  Greek  and  Roman  history  in  the  high  school, 
an  arrangement  of  studies  radically  wrong,  because 
false  chronologically  and  false  in  principle.  On 
such  a  basis  it  is  impossible  to  build  up  a  sys- 
tematic course  of  history  in  the  college  or  the 
university  without  doing,  in  the  college,  a  part  of 
the  work  that  should  have  been  done  before  en- 
trance. "  The  larger  universities,"  says  Professor 
Sloane,  in  speaking  of  American  institutions, 
"have  an  imposing  array  of  historical  chairs,  but 
they  do  not  demand,  as  a  condition  of  entrance  to 
their  lecture  rooms,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  gen- 
eral history."1  College  students  everywhere  must 
feel  the  irrelevancy  as  well  as  the  inadequacy  of 
their  work  in  history  before  entering  college,  when 
considered  as  a  preparation  for  that  college  work. 

This  conclusion  must  follow  :  The  work  in  his- 
tory in  American  schools  will  never  be  on  a  rational 
basis  until,  as  in  Germany,  it  recognizes  the  double 
purpose  that  history  in  these  schools  is  to  serve ; 
until  it  is  so  organized  as  to  give  the  boy  or  girl 

1  History  and  Democracy,  in  American  Historical  Review,  I.  1 8. 


198  German  Schools 

who  does  not  go  to  college  a  well-rounded  concep- 
tion of  the  epoch-making  events  in  the  world's 
history ;  until  it  plans  its  college  entrance  require- 
ments in  history  with  reference  to  the  college  work 
in  history ;  until  it  makes  the  course  of  history  in 
the  schools  identical  for  those  who  do,  and  for 
those  who  do  not,  go  to  college ;  until  it  correlates 
the  work  done  in  history  with  the  work  of  every 
other  subject  in  the  school  curriculum. 


Appendix  IV 

History  in    French   Lycees1 

BY    CHARLES    H.    HASKINS 

IN  France,  as  elsewhere,  history  is  a  compara- 
tively recent  addition  to  the  subjects  of  the  sec- 

1  The  following  report  does  not  profess  to  represent  the  results 
of  a  detailed  examination  of  a  considerable  number  of  schools. 
The  information  upon  which  it  is  based  has  been  gathered  in  the 
course  of  two  visits  to  France,  partly  from  official  programmes  and 
other  printed  sources,  partly  from  observation  of  classes  in  lycees 
and  courses  for  the  training  of  teachers,  and  partly  from  conversa- 
tion with  French  professors  who  possess  special  familiarity  with 
the  conditions  in  secondary  schools.  I  regret  that  the  number  of 
classes  visited  was  not  larger;  but  there  is  great  uniformity  of 
system  and  administration  in  French  education,  and  I  am  informed 
by  competent  authority  that  wider  observation  would  not  have  ma- 
terially modified  the  account  here  given. 

The  official  programmes  and  instructions  are  published  by  Dela- 
lain  at  Paris.  The  brief  appendix  on  "  The  Secondary  Teaching  of 
History  in  France  "  in  the  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  History 
of  Langlois  and  Seignobos  is  excellent,  and  many  of  the  suggestions 
will  be  found  valuable  outside  of  France  as  well.  Altamira's  dis- 
cussion of  history  in  secondary  schools  in  his  Ensenanza  de  la 
Hiitoria  (chapters  8  and  9)  has  much  to  say  of  France. 

199 


2oo  French  Lycees 

ondary  curriculum.  Long  taught  simply  as  an 
unimportant  adjunct  of  the  ancient  languages,  it 
is  only  in  the  course  of  the  present  century,  and 
largely  for  the  purpose  of  stimulating  patriotism, 
that  it  has  gained  the  right  to  an  independent 
place  in  secondary  schools.  The  desire  to  develop 
patriotic  emotion  by  familiarity  with  the  nation's 
past  still  occupies  in  France,  as  in  Germany,  an 
important  place  in  the  minds  of  secondary  teach- 
ers ;  but  a  broader  conception  of  the  aims  of  his- 
torical study  has  spread  in  recent  years  and  found 
expression  in  the  official  instructions  issued  in 
connection  with  the  course  of  study.  History, 
they  declare,  contributes  to  the  education  of  the 
mind  by  exercising  the  memory,  developing  the 
imagination,  and  training  the  judgment ;  it  con- 
tributes to  moral  education  by  cultivating  the  love 
of  truth  and  preparing  youth  for  their  civic  duties. 
"  To  give  the  pupil  an  exact  idea  of  the  successive 
civilizations  of  the  world  and  definite  knowledge 
of  the  formation  and  growth  of  France ;  to  show 
him  the  action  of  the  world  on  our  country  and  of 
our  country  on  the  world ;  to  teach  him  to  render 
to  all  peoples  their  just  dues,  to  widen  the  horizon 
of  his  mind,  and  finally  to  leave  him  in  possession, 
not  only  of  an  understanding  of  the  present  con- 
dition of  his  country  and  of  the  world,  but  also 
of  a  clear  notion  of  his  duties  as  a  Frenchman 


The  School  System          201 

and  as  a  man  —  such  is  the  function  of  history  in 
education."  l 

The  French  system  of  public  secondary  instruc- 
tion comprises  two  types  of  schools :  the  lyctes, 
schools  maintained  and  directed  by  the  cen- 
tral government,  of  which  there  are  now  about 
one  hundred  distributed  throughout  France ;  and 
the  colleges,  local  high  schools,  which  receive 
some  assistance  from  the  general  treasury,  and  are 
usually  less  completely  equipped  than  the  lyctes. 
For  the  purposes  of  the  present  report,  however, 
the  two  institutions  may  be  classed  together,  as 
the  programme  of  studies  is  the  same  in  both.  The 
regular  course  of  the  lycte  covers  ten  years,  but 
as  the  studies  of  the  first  three  years  are  identical 
with  those  of  the  elementary  schools,  the  pupil 
does  not  enter  the  lycte  proper  until  he  arrives  at 
the  class  of  the  sixitme,  where  he  begins  Latin,  if 
a  classical  student,  or  German,  if  he  be  a  "  mod- 
ern." This  stage  is  ordinarily  reached  at  the  age 
of  eleven,  so  that  the  boy  who  spends  seven  years 
in  the  lycte  will  complete  the  course  and  present 
himself  for  his  bachelor's  examination  at  eighteen. 

1  Lavisse,  A  propos  de  nos  ecoles,  8i;  Instructions  concernant 
les  programmes  de  r  enseignement  secondaire  classique,  xlvii-1.  The 
portion  of  these  instructions  which  relates  to  history  was  prepared 
by  Lavisse,  and  may  be  found,  somewhat  abridged,  in  his  A  j.ropoi 
de  nos  ecoles,  77-107. 


2O2  French  Lycees 

To  state  the  matter  in  American  terms,  the  French 
boy  spends  in  the  lycte  the  period  that  the  Amer- 
ican boy  spends  in  the  high  school,  plus  the  last 
year  or  two  years  of  the  grammar  grade  and  the 
first  year  or  two  of  college,  but  he  reaches  the  close 
of  his  lycte  course  about  two  years  earlier  than  the 
American  youth  comes  to  the  corresponding  point 
in  his  education. * 

Throughout  the  whole  course  of  the  lycJe,  as 
well  as  in  the  three  preliminary  years,  an  hour  and 
a  half  a  week  is  devoted  to  history  and  an  hour  to 
the  related  subject  of  geography,  except  in  the 
last  year,  where  from  two  to  four  hours  are  given 
to  history.  The  total  number  of  hours  varies  from 
fifteen  to  twenty-two,  according  to  year  and  course, 
decreasing  in  the  later  years  of  the  classical  course, 
but  remaining  undiminished  in  the  modern,  so  that 
the  proportion  of  time  devoted  to  history,  which  is 

1  In  what  is  said  above,  and  in  this  account  generally,  the  insti- 
tutions for  boys  are  taken  as  the  type.  The  secondary  schools  for 
girls  have  a  course  of  five  years,  divided  into  two  "  periods,"  and 
history  has  an  allotment  of  two  hours  a  week  throughout.  In  the 
first  period,  for  pupils  between  twelve  and  fifteen,  the  programme 
covers  the  history  of  France,  with  "  summary  notions  of  general 
history."  In  the  second  period  a  survey  of  the  history  of  civilization 
is  given.  While  in  general  the  same  methods  of  instruction  prevail 
in  both  classes  of  schools,  their  application  to  girls'  schools  is 
necessarily  conditioned  by  the  more  general  character  of  the 
course  in  history  and  the  absence  of  classical  studies  from  the 
curriculum. 


The  Programme  203 

but  seven  and  one-half  per  cent  in  the  lower  years, 
rises  to  twenty  or  even  more  in  the  last  year.  The 
total  number  of  hours  of  history  for  the  entire  ten 
years  is  sixteen  and  one-half  for  classical  and 
literary,  and  thirteen  and  one-half  for  scientific, 
students.  In  the  elementary  classes  the  historical 
instruction  is  necessarily  of  an  informal  character, 
and  consists  of  biographical  narration  in  the  first 
year,  followed  by  a  two  years'  survey  of  the  history 
of  France  studied  biographically.  Then  with  the 
grammar  division  of  the  lycte  begins  the  systematic 
and  continuous  study  of  the  world's  history.  Three 
years  are  devoted  to  the  history  of  the  Orient, 
Greece,  and  Rome,  and  the  remaining  four  years 
are  occupied  with  the  history  of  mediaeval  and 
modern  Europe,  studied  with  special  reference  to 
France  and  divided  into  the  following  yearly  blocks  : 
375  to  1270,  1270  to  1610,  1610  to  1789,  and  1789 
to  the  present.  This  is  the  programme  for  classical 
students.  For  the  "  modern  "  course,  which  is  one 
year  shorter,  Oriental  and  Greek  history  are  com- 
bined in  one  year,  and  in  the  last  year  additional 
instruction  is  offered  in  the  general  history  of  art 
and  civilization,  and  in  the  elements  of  civil  govern- 
ment and  political  economy. 

The  most  important  feature  of  this  programme 
is  that  it  affords  a  comprehensive  survey  of  the 
world's  history  in  its  chronological  development, 


204  French  Lycees 

from  the  earliest  period  down  to  the  present.  In 
contrast  to  the  two  "  concentric  circles "  of  the 
German  gymnasium,  the  pupil  is  taken  over  the 
field  but  once,  so  that  a  fuller  treatment  is  possible 
in  any  one  year ;  but  the  thorough  review  of  the 
German  system  is  lost,  much  to  the  detriment  of 
the  subjects  studied  early  in  the  course.  In  other 
respects  the  general  distribution  of  time  is  much 
the  same  as  in  the  Prussian  programme,  except  that 
in  the  one  case  it  is  France,  in  the  other  Germany 
and  Prussia,  that  forms  the  centre  of  study  in 
mediaeval  and  modern  times.  The  existing  ar- 
rangement seems  on  the  whole  to  be  popular  in 
France,  though  some  prefer  the  German  "  circles," 
and  others  demand  for  history,  at  some  stage  in  the 
course,  the  preponderant  place  that  rhetoric  and 
philosophy  now  have  in  the  last  two  years,  urging 
that  in  no  other  way  can  the  disciplinary  value  of 
history  be  realized,  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  formal 
studies  of  language  and  mathematics,  and  the  only 
study  which,  by  dealing  with  concrete  social  facts, 
brings  the  pupil  into  proper  relations  with  his 
civic  environment. 

Besides  prescribing  the  general  character  of  the 
course  in  history,  the  official  programme  contains 
an  outline  of  the  topics  to  be  studied  in  each  class, 
accompanied  by  brief  suggestions  as  to  the  mode 
of  treatment.  The  plan  of  each  year's  work  is 


Methods  205 

drawn  up  with  considerable  care,  but  it  is  designed 
to  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  teacher  rather  than  nar- 
rowly to  control  him. 

While  there  has  been  a  noticeable  improvement 
in  the  course  of  study  in  history  since  the  middle 
of  the  century,  the  methods  of  instruction  are  still 
largely  tinged  with  the  spirit  of  formalism  and  rou- 
tine inherited  from  the  Second  Empire.  The  lycte 
is  still  a  semi-military  institution,  which  has  much 
of  the  appearance  of  barracks,  and  calls  its  pupils 
to  class  by  the  beating  of  a  drum ;  and  while  pro- 
fessors are  now  free  to  dress  and  wear  their  beards 
as  they  choose,  they  have  not  all  grasped  the  full 
consequences  of  the  idea  that  the  pupil  is  to  be 
trained  as  a  citizen  and  not  as  a  subject.  Indeed, 
pedagogical  problems  in  general  have  received  com- 
paratively slight  attention  in  France,  and  questions 
of  what  to  teach  and  how  to  teach  in  history  have 
been  very  little  considered.  A  common  practice  is 
to  dictate  a  brief  summary  of  the  hour's  work,  ex- 
pand this  into  a  lecture  while  the  pupils  take  notes, 
and  question  them  at  the  beginning  of  the  next 
hour  on  the  lecture  and  some  pages  of  the  text- 
book. The  professor  speaks  from  a  raised  plat- 
form, and  the  small  blackboard  is  reserved  for  his 
personal  use  only.  The  scholars  usually  show  in- 
terest, and  they  may  be  even  required  to  prepare 
supplementary  papers,  but  their  attitude  is  largely 


206  French  Lycees 

passive,  and  the  system  lacks  the  advantages  of 
the  steady  German  drill  on  hard  facts,  or  the  freer 
use  of  material  characteristic  of  good  American 
teaching.  These  conditions  are,  however,  begin- 
ning to  pass  away  as  the  professors  who  have 
grown  old  under  the  dictation  system  give  place 
to  younger  men.  It  is  coming  to  be  realized  that 
the  pupil  should  get  his  fundamental  facts  from 
a  text  rather  than  from  the  instructor's  lecture, 
and  that  the  time  spent  in  the  classroom  need  not 
be  wholly  given  up  to  the  alternate  repetition  of 
statements  by  teacher  and  pupil.  In  addition  to 
the  text-book,  classes  may  now  have  at  their  dis- 
posal excellent  illustrative  matter,  such  as  is  con- 
tained in  the  Albums  historiques  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  edited  by  Parmentier,  and  the  Lectures  his- 
toriques 1  designed  for  supplementary  reading.  In 
one  way  and  another  fresh  life  is  being  infused 
into  the  study  of  history,  and  in  some  schools  re- 
markable results  have  already  been  attained  in 

1  These  are  published  by  Hachette.  The  three  volumes  for  the 
ancient  period  consist  of  an  interesting  series  of  sketches  of  Egyp- 
tian and  Assyrian  life  from  the  competent  hand  of  Maspero,  and 
excellent  accounts  of  the  public  and  private  life  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  by  Guiraud.  The  later  volumes  are  made  up  of  well- 
chosen  selections  from  modern  historians,  grouped  according  to 
the  programme.  The  extracts  from  sources  contained  in  the  earlier 
editions  have  now  been  omitted,  as  they  did  not  seem  adapted  to 
this  stage  of  the  pupil's  development. 


Preparation  of  Teachers       207 

securing   the   pupils'   active   participation   in   the 
work.1 

The  professors  of  history  and  geography  in 
lyctes  —  the  subjects  are  usually  combined  —  are 
appointed  on  the  basis  of  a  competitive  examina- 
tion. After  having  taken  his  baccalaureate  degree 
the  candidate  must  continue  his  work  for  two 
years,  studying  Latin,  Greek,  and  French,  as  well 
as  his  specialty,  until  he  receives  the  licence.  Then 
comes  a  further  year  spent  largely  in  the  writing 
of  a  thesis,  followed  by  a  year's  strenuous  prepa- 
ration for  the  final  test,  the  agr/gation,  for  which 
the  competition  is  very  keen.  As  the  examination 
bears  upon  the  candidate's  ability  to  present  a  sub- 
ject before  classes,  as  well  as  upon  his  knowledge 
of  history  and  geography,  the  preliminary  courses 
include,  not  only  lectures  and  seminaries,  but 
numerous  practical  exercises  in  teaching,  under 
the  supervision  and  criticism  of  professors  and 
fellow-students.  The  necessary  preparation  of  a 
teacher  of  history  accordingly  consists  of  a  sub- 
stantial classical  education  as  a  foundation,  and  a 
period  of  special  study  of  at  least  four  years  spent 
at  one  of  the  universities  or  at  the  Ecole  Normale 

1  See  in  the  Revue  universitaire,  June  15,  1896,  the  examples 
printed  by  Seignobos  of  written  work  done  in  a  small  college  in  the 
west  of  France,  and  notably  the  careful  and  intelligent  comparisons 
of  various  ancient  and  modern  institutions. 


208  French  Lycees 

SupSrieure,  the  whole  tested  by  a  rigid  examina- 
tion. 

Such,  in  brief  outline,  are  the  general  features 
of  historical  instruction  in  the  secondary  schools 
of  France.  The  French  have  realized  the  impor- 
tance of  history  as  an  essential  element  in  the  sec- 
ondary curriculum,  they  have  made  provision  for 
its  systematic  and  continuous  study  throughout 
the  whole  of  the  school  course,  and  they  have 
established  a  system  which  assures  the  selection  of 
well-trained  teachers.  In  these  respects  we  can 
profit  by  their  example ;  but  at  present  we  have 
little  to  learn  from  their  methods  of  instruction, 
beyond  the  suggestions  that  may  be  derived  from 
their  clear  and  well-ordered  text-books,1  and  from 
the  arrangement  of  topics  in  the  programme,  which 
Matthew  Arnold  declared  no  educated  man  could 
read  "  without  profit  —  without  being  reminded 
of  gaps  in  his  knowledge  and  stimulated  to  fill 

1  The  Precis  de  I'histoire  moderne  of  Michelet,  once  so  popular, 
has  gone  out  of  use,  and  the  famous  school  histories  of  Duruy  are 
passing.  A  scholarly  series  is  appearing  under  the  editorship  of 
Monod  ;  the  volume  by  Bemont  and  Monod  on  the  Middle  Ages 
is  excellent,  though  somewhat  beyond  the  grasp  of  the  boys  of  four- 
teen for  whom  it  was  written.  The  text  books  of  Seignobos  on  the 
Orient,  Greece,  and  Rome,  published  by  Colin,  are  very  suggestive, 
and  deserve  to  be  better  known  in  America  ;  see  particularly  the 
Supplements  a  fusagf  Jes  professeurs  issued  in  connection  with  the 
volumes  on  the  Orient  and  Greece. 


Lessons  from  France         209 

them."1  We  must,  however,  remember  that  it  is 
only  in  recent  years  that  historical  studies,  even  in 
the  universities,  have  been  placed  upon  a  sub- 
stantial basis  in  France,  so  that  it  is  too  soon  to 
expect  the  best  results  in  secondary  teaching. 
Already  there  are  indications  that  as  the  possibili- 
ties of  historical  instruction  become  more  gen- 
erally recognized,  and  the  improvements  in  higher 
education  make  themselves  more  widely  felt  in  the 
schools,  it  may  be  well  worth  the  while  of  Ameri- 
can teachers  to  watch  the  progress  of  historical 
teaching  in  France ;  for  in  spite  of  all  the  differ- 
ences in  conditions  in  the  two  countries,  the 
fundamental  problem  of  the  secondary  teacher  of 
history  is  the  same  in  France  as  in  America, 
namely,  how  to  make  the  study  of  history  tell  most 
effectively  for  the  general  culture  and  the  civic 
training  of  the  future  citizens  of  a  great  democ- 
racy. In  solving  this  problem  we  shall  need  all 
the  experience  of  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic. 

1  A   French   Eton   and  Schools   and   Universities   in   France^ 
(edition  of  1892),  375. 


Appendix  V 

History  in   English   Secondary 
Schools 


BY    GEORGE    L.    FOX 

THE  well-known  chaotic  character  of  the  English 
system  of  education  makes  it  difficult  to  give  a 
satisfactory  account  of  the  scope  and  methods  of 
teaching  history  in  English  secondary  schools. 
There  is  great  lack  of  system  and  uniformity  of 
method.  In  France  and  Germany,  order  and 
symmetry  prevail  in  the  educational  system,  as  it 
is  controlled  and  determined  by  the  state.  A  rea- 
sonable uniformity  therefore  results,  and  whatever 
assertions  can  be  safely  made  about  a  few  repre- 
sentative schools  are  likely  to  be  true  of  most  of 
the  schools.  In  England,  on  the  contrary,  the 
secondary  schools  are  almost  entirely  under  pri- 
vate control,  and  are  generally  free  from  state 
supervision.  Indeed,  the  secondary  school  sup- 
ported wholly  or  partly  by  public  taxation,  and 


Conditions  211 

under  the  control  of  the  state  and  local  govern- 
ments, like  the  high  school  in  the  United  States, 
or  the  lycte  in  France  or  the  gymnasium  in  Ger- 
many, does  not  exist  in  Great  Britain,  although 
some  secondary  school  subjects  are  taught  in  the 
higher  grade  board  school,  and  the  evening  con- 
tinuation schools. 

When  English  secondary  schools  are  discussed 
in  this  report,  the  expression  is  to  be  understood  as 
referring  chiefly  to  the  so-called  public  schools  of 
England,  of  which  Winchester,  Eton,  Harrow,  and 
Rugby,  are  the  familiar  type.  These  institutions 
are,  in  most  cases,  endowed  schools,  controlled  by 
a  board  of  governors,  in  which  the  course  of  study 
and  the  methods  of  teaching  are  determined  by  the 
head-master.  The  pupils,  when  they  enter  these 
schools,  are  usually  between  twelve  and  sixteen 
years  of  age,  and  they  have  received  their  previous 
education  either  from  private  tutors,  in  local  gram- 
mar schools  or,  more  commonly,  in  small  boarding 
schools,  scattered  over  England,  called  prepara- 
tory schools,  which  are  private  venture-schools,  that 
is,  are  owned  by  private  individuals.  In  these 
schools  they  have  usually  studied  elementary  Eng- 
lish history,  and  to  some  degree,  Greek  and  Roman 
history  as  well. 

There  is  another  reason  also,  why  it  is  not  easy 
to  give  an  exact  account  of  the  teaching  of  history 


212  English  Schools 

in  the  English  secondary  schools,  namely,  because 
of  the  difficulty  which  the  visitor  has  in  seeing  the 
teacher  actually  at  work  in  his  classroom.  The 
visitor  to  French  or  German  schools,  if  he  has 
the  proper  authorization  from  the  state  authority, 
finds  at  once  ready  entrance  to  every  classroom. 
But  no  such  "  open  sesame"  makes  easy  the  path- 
way of  the  visitor  to  the  English  secondary  schools. 
There  seems  to  be  an  unwritten  law  that  an  Eng- 
lish master's  form-room  is  his  castle,  and  it  is  not 
an  easy  thing  to  see  the  actual  work  of  teaching. 
The  writer  of  this  report  saw  less  than  a  dozen 
recitations  in  history  in  English  schools,  and  the 
statements  which  are  made  are  based  on  such 
limited  inspection,  the  perusal  of  courses  of  study 
and  examination  papers,  and  on  conversation  with 
different  teachers  of  history. 

While  the  course  of  study  and  the  methods  are 
largely  determined  by  the  head-master,  he  is  limited 
in  his  decisions  by  the  requirements  of  the  higher 
educational  institutions,  for  which  most  of  the 
pupils  are  preparing. 

The  English  public  school  is  commonly  divided 
into  two  departments  :  the  classical  side  and  the 
modern  side,  which  correspond,  roughly,  to  the 
classical  and  scientific  courses  in  our  schools. 
The  ultimate  aim  of  the  boy  on  the  classical  side 
is  entrance  to  the  universities  of  Oxford  or  Cam- 


University  Influence          213 

bridge.  The  goal  of  the  boy  on  the  modern  side 
cannot  be  so  definitely  stated ;  but  it  is  either  busi- 
ness life,  the  engineering  and  scientific  professions, 
or  the  army  colleges.  This  last  class,  who  intend 
to  be  officers  in  the  army,  are  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  the  boys  on  the  modern  side,  and  their 
needs  are  especially  recognized  by  a  subdivision  in 
the  later  years  of  this  course,  called  "The  army 
class."  The  limitations,  which  are  likely  to  gov- 
ern the  course  of  study  of  the  army  class,  are  the 
requirements  imposed  by  the  government  for  ad- 
mission to  the  military  colleges  of  Woolwich  and 
Sandhurst,  one  of  which  educates  officers  for  the 
artillery  and  engineering,  the  other  for  the  infan- 
try and  cavalry  branches  of  the  service.  Among 
these  requirements,  English  history  finds  a  place 
only  as  an  optional  subject,  for  which  the  maxi- 
mum allowance  is  two  thousand  marks  in  a  total  of 
fourteen  thousand. 

While  in  the  secondary  schools  of  England  the 
State  has  no  direct  influence  in  determining  the 
course  of  study,  the  influence  of  the  universities 
in  this  respect  is  most  important  and  effective. 
This  influence  is  most  directly  exerted  through 
what  is  known  as  the  Oxford  and  Cambridge 
Schools  Examination  Board,  which  is  made  up  of 
representatives  of  both  universities. 

This  board  conducts  examinations  at  the  close 


214  English  Schools 

of  the  school  year  at  most  of  the  leading  schools  in 
England,  and  issues  certificates  of  proficiency  to 
those  who  have  successfully  passed  the  examina- 
tions. These  higher  certificates  give  exemption, 
under  certain  conditions,  from  the  earlier  examina- 
tions in  the  university  course,  known  as  "  Smalls  " 
at  Oxford,  and  "  The  Little  Go  "  at  Cambridge. 
The  subjects  of  the  examination  are  classified  in 
four  groups:  (i)  a  language  group,  including  four 
subjects,  Greek,  Latin,  French,  German ;  (2)  a 
mathematics  group  divided  into  two  subjects; 
(3)  an  English  group  divided  into  scripture  know- 
ledge, English,  and  history,  and  (4)  a  science  group 
divided  into  six  subjects. 

Candidates  are  usually  required  to  pass  in  four 
subjects  in  not  less  than  three  groups.  If  they  offer 
history,  they  may  choose  between  Greek,  Roman, 
and  English  history.  The  whole  field  of  each 
country's  history  is  not  necessarily  included.  Often 
a  period  covering  less  than  three  centuries  is  pre- 
scribed, together  with  a  special  knowledge  of  a 
smaller  period  included  within  it. 

In  1897  the  general  period  in  Greek  history  ex- 
tended to  323  B.C.,  while  the  special  period  extended 
from  403  B.C.  to  362  B.C.  In  Roman  history  the 
general  period  was  from  72  B.C.  to  180  A.D.,  while 
special  knowledge  was  required  of  the  period  from 
14  A.D.  to  96  A.D.  In  English  history  the  exami- 


University  Examinations      215 

nation  covered  from  1485  to  1660,  with  a  special 
knowledge  of  the  period  from  1555  to  1603. 

These  specific  instructions  as  to  periods  to  be 
studied  are  changed  every  two  or  three  years,  but 
seldom  is  a  period  of  English  history  prescribed 
later  than  1815.  The  two  points  to  be  noted  in 
these  requirements  are,  first,  that  the  shorter  period 
for  study  is  included  in  the  longer  period,  and 
second,  that  in  each  subject  the  examination  covers 
only  a  portion  of  the  nation's  history. 

The  colleges,  at  both  the  universities  of  Oxford 
and  Cambridge,  also  endeavor  to  strengthen  the 
instruction  of  history  at  the  schools  by  establishing 
history  scholarships,  which  yield  from  $250  to 
$400  a  year  to  the  successful  candidates.  These 
scholarships  are  offered  either  by  single  colleges 
or  by  two  or  three  colleges  combined.  As  is  well 
known,  this  is  a  method  characteristic  of  the  Eng- 
lish universities  for  promoting  interest  in  any 
branch  of  learning,  and  serves  to  introduce  into 
the  schools  a  tendency  to  have  a  promising  pupil 
in  the  upper  classes  specialize  upon  some  subject 
for  which  he  has  a  strong  bent.  The  two  most 
prominent  of  the  Oxford  colleges  in  awarding  his- 
tory scholarships  are  Balliol  and  New  College,  who 
hold  the  same  examination  for  this  purpose. 

The  examinations  for  this  purpose  held  on  Nov. 
1 6,  1897,  consisted  of  (i)  an  essay  written  in  the 


216  English  Schools 

examination  on  some  historical  subject,  (2)  two 
language  papers  showing  candidate's  knowledge 
of  Latin,  Greek,  French,  or  German,  (3)  a  general 
paper,  (4)  two  papers  either  in  ancient  history  or 
in  mediaeval  history  (including  English  history), 
or  in  the  history  of  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and 
eighteenth  centuries  (including  English  history), 
at  the  option  of  the  candidate.  The  regulations 
prescribed  that  the  knowledge  required  for  the 
general  paper  could  be  obtained  from  such  books 
as  the  following:  Guizot's  "Civilization  in  Europe," 
Hallam's  "Middle  Ages  "  (Chapter  IX.),  Bagehot's 
"English  Constitution,"  Maine's  "Ancient  Law," 
Macaulay's  "  Essays,"  and  Walker's  "  Political 
Economy."  These  books,  naturally,  a  successful 
candidate  would  be  expected  to  have  read  thor- 
oughly, although  one  of  the  Balliol  examiners  told 
me  that  it  was  not  wholly  acquaintance  with  books, 
but  signs  of  promise  shown  by  the  candidate,  that 
determined  the  award.  Most  stress  is  laid  upon 
the  essay  and  general  papers  which  test  natural 
ability.  The  scholarships  that  are  offered  at  Ox- 
ford are  open  to  all  candidates  who  have  not  been 
in  residence  at  the  university  more  than  eight 
terms,  or  two  years  ;  so  that  a  candidate  fresh  from 
a  public  school  may  have  to  compete  for  a  scholar 
ship  with  students  who  have  been  for  more  than  a 
year  at  the  university.  But  still  a  few  boys  in  the 


Field  of  Instruction          217 

highest  forms  of  the  best  schools  will  usually  be 
found  in  training  for  these  scholarships.  They 
will  receive  especial  attention  in  history  work  from 
one  of  the  masters,  will  be  excused  from  some 
other  subjects  in  order  to  give  time  to  collateral 
reading,  in  which  they  are  tested  from  time  to  time 
by  the  special  master. 

The  certificate  examination  and  the  scholarship 
examination  illustrate  the  two  classes  of  pupils 
whose  wants  are  considered  in  the  colleges  and 
schools  of  England,  viz.  the  average  pupil  and  the 
pupil  of  unusual  ability  in  any  direction.  Because 
of  this  distinction  there  exist,  side  by  side,  at  the 
universities,  the  pass  and  the  honor  examinations. 
Of  course  the  needs  of  the  latter  class  are  not  con- 
sidered except  in  the  higher  forms  of  the  school, 
but  there  they  are  very  distinctly  considered. 
Small  classes  of  able  pupils  receive  special  instruc- 
tion to  fit  them  for  the  scholarship  contests  in 
different  subjects.  The  eagerness  to  win  these 
scholarships  and  thus  to  gain  distinction  forms  a 
powerful  incentive  to  earnest  and  wide  reading  in 
history,  although,  in  the  opinion  of  some  critics, 
the  scholarship  system  is  one  of  the  baneful  fea- 
tures of  English  education.  These  two  classes  of 
pupils  must  be  borne  in  mind,  in  considering  the 
teaching  of  history  in  English  schools. 

With  regard  to  the  field  of  history  that  is  covered 


2i 8  English  Schools 

in  the  schools,  the  course  of  study  in  most  schools 
includes,  on  the  classical  side  at  least,  Greek  history, 
Roman  history,  and  English  history.  In  most 
cases  the  pupils  will  give  at  least  one  hour  a  week 
to  history  throughout  the  course,  from  the  age  of 
twelve  to  nineteen.  A  boy  who  has  passed  through 
all  the  forms  of  the  secondary  school,  will  very 
likely  have  taken  up  these  subjects  twice ;  first  in 
an  elementary  way  with  a  brief  text-book,  such  as 
Gardiner's  "Outline  of  English  History,"  or  Ran- 
some's  smaller  book.  Then  at  a  later  stage  of  the 
course  comes  a  more  thorough  treatment  of  the 
subject  with  a  more  extensive  text-book,  and  pos- 
sibly collateral  reading. 

Of  course  the  chief  object  of  the  elementary 
course  should  be  not  only  the  learning  of  the  main 
facts  of  history,  but  also  an  awakening  of  interest 
in  the  subject,  which  creates  a  thirst  for  individual 
study.  Whether  these  ends  are  realized  depends 
very  much  upon  the  character  of  the  teaching  and 
the  enthusiasm  of  the  teacher. 

Haileybury  College  in  Hertfordshire,  one  of  the 
youngest  and  less  known  public  schools,  has  won 
especial  distinction  in  this  respect  through  two  of 
the  masters  who  are  keenly  interested  in  teaching 
the  world's  life  of  the  past.  The  lecture-room  is 
fitted  with  all  necessary  appliances  for  using  the 
stereopticon  in  the  daytime.  Thousands  of  slides 


Programmes  219 

have  been  made  by  these  masters,  from  photo- 
graphs of  places,  costumes,  relics,  armor,  weapons, 
etc.,  and  authentic  illustrations  in  books,  such  as 
those  in  Gardiner's  "  History  of  England,"  or  the 
illustrated  edition  of  Green.  Thus  the  imagina- 
tion of  the  boys  is  stimulated,  and  the  past  is  made 
to  live  before  their  eyes. 

Two  dangers  of  this  method  they  seem  to  have 
avoided  at  Haileybury.  One  is  the  disposition  of 
a  live  boy  "to  take  advantage  of  the  darkness 
necessitated  by  the  use  of  the  lantern  to  riot  or  to 
sleep."  The  other  is  to  look  upon  the  exercise 
as  a  pleasant  diversion  for  the  hour  only,  leav- 
ing no  permanent  absorption  of  knowledge  in  the 
pupil's  mind.  At  Haileybury  the  pupils  are  re- 
quired to  hand  in  reports  of  the  lectures,  and  their 
knowledge  is  tested  by  viva  voce  questioning.  The 
same  method  is  utilized  with  the  higher  forms, 
where  the  history  of  the  French  Revolution  is  illus- 
trated with  contemporary  portraits  and  caricatures, 
thrown  upon  the  screen.  I  doubt  if  in  any  school 
in  the  world  so  extensive  and  efficient  use  of  the 
stereopticon  in  history  teaching  is  made  as  at  the 
old  college  of  the  East  India  Company,  now  a 
public  school,  where  Malthus  was  a  teacher,  and 
John  Lawrence  fought  many  a  battle  with  his  fists. 

I  have  spoken  of  the  limited  fields  of  history 
prescribed  by  the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  certifi- 


22O  English  Schools 

cate  examinations,  but  the  schools  naturally  do 
not  limit  their  courses  of  study  by  these  require- 
ments. In  a  number  of  them  a  prescribed  cycle 
of  history  is  laid  down.  This  system  is  cham- 
pioned by  some  masters  and  condemned  by  others. 

As  a  specimen  of  such  a  cycle  I  will  quote  from 
the  calendar  for  1896,  of  Winchester  College,  the 
oldest  public  school  in  England,  founded  in  1387. 
The  fall  term  at  Winchester  is  known  as  the  Short 
Half ;  the  winter  term  as  Common  Time ;  and  the 
term  following  Easter  to  August  I,  as  Cloister 
Time.  Common  Time  and  Cloister  Time  together 
form  the  Long  Half. 

The  highest  class  is  known  as  the  Sixth  Book, 
for  which  there  was  this  history  cycle  covering  four 
years. 

Long  Half  .      Hallam's  Middle  Ages. 
Short  Half.     Greek  History  to  435  B.C. 

Long  Half.     The  Reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
Short  Half  .     Roman  History  133-31  B.C. 

Long  Half.      The  Reign  of  Charles  I. 

Short  Half.     Roman  History  31  B.C. -305  A.D. 

Long  Half  .      English  History  1215-1327. 
Short  Half.     Bryce's  Holy  Roman  Empire. 

It  is  hard  to  make  out  much  orderly  sequence 
or  deliberate  teaching  purpose  in  such  an  arrange- 
ment, and  it  would  seem  that  a  pupil  following 


European  History  221 

such  an  order  would  get  a  confused  impression  of 
the  course  of  the  world's  history.  But  probably, 
like  many  other  things  in  the  English  school  cur- 
riculum, it  is  a  traditional  growth  and  not  founded 
on  any  distinct  pedagogical  purpose. 

Much  easier  to  understand  is  the  cycle  for  the 
other  classes  in  the  school  as  follows: — 

1896. 
Short  Half.        Greek  History  after  432  B.C. 

1897. 

Common  Time.  Roman  History  to  200  B.C. 

Cloister  Time.  Roman  History  after  200  B.C. 

Short  Half.  Student's  Gibbon  to  Justinian. 

1898. 

Common  Time.  Student's  Gibbon  from  Mahomet. 

Cloister  Time.  English  History,  Tudor  Period. 

Short  Half.  English  History,  Stuart  Period. 

1899. 
Common  Time.  Greek  History  to  432  B.C. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  fields  of  history  usually 
covered  in  the  English  public  schools  are  Greek, 
Roman,  and  English  history.  It  should  be  added 
that  in  many  schools  there  is  considerable  teach- 
ing of  Biblical  history  under  the  head  of  scripture 
knowledge,  as  well  as  the  outline  history  of  the 
English  Church. 

European  history,  except  where  it  is  in  close 


222  English  Schools 

contact  with  English  history,  is  not  formally  and 
generally  recognized  in  the  school  curriculum. 
Occasionally  a  school  will  be  found  where  the 
enthusiastic  interest  of  a  master  has  secured  for 
his  form  some  recognition  of  a  particular  period  of 
European  history  apart  from  English  history.  To 
what  extent  this  casual  and  incidental  teaching  of 
history  goes  on  depends  upon  the  enthusiastic  zeal 
of  the  master  and  the  disposition  of  the  head-mas- 
ter to  encourage  or  discourage  it.  In  the  year 
1893-94  the  upper  bench  of  the  Sixth  at  Rugby 
took  Seebohm's  "  Era  of  the  Protestant  Reforma- 
tion," and  part  of  Oman's  "The  Dark  Ages." 
Indeed,  in  this  somewhat  irregular  way,  the  pupils 
learn  considerable  history  outside  of  the  stated  and 
formal  curriculum.  The  form  masters  in  the  higher 
forms  on  the  classical  side  often  lay  stress  upon 
the  writings  of  Livy,  Cicero,  Tacitus,  and  Thu- 
cydides,  as  history  as  well  as  literature  or  philol- 
ogy. At  Harrow,  under  Mr.  Bowen,  the  master 
of  the  modern  side,  the  books  read  are  often 
distinctly  of  a  historical  character.  Books  like 
"  Lazare  Hoche,"  "  Campagne  de  Russie," 
"Charles  XII.,"  and  Beresford-Webb's  "German 
Historical  Reading  Book,"  are  cases  in  point. 
They  are  studied  not  only  from  a  language  point 
of  view,  but  also  with  regard  to  the  study  of 
history. 


English  History  223 

This  incidental  teaching  of  history  in  some 
schools  takes  the  place  of  practice  in  writing  Greek 
or  Latin  verse,  and  is  known  as  verse  equivalent. 
In  1897,  at  Rugby,  the  boys  of  some  of  the  forms 
who  were  excused  from  verse-making,  were  com- 
pelled to  take  as  verse  equivalent  the  three  fol- 
lowing books :  in  the  Lent  term,  Seeley's  "  The 
Expansion  of  England  "  ;  in  the  summer  term  as 
appropriate  to  the  Diamond  Jubilee,  McCarthy's 
"  Short  History  of  Our  Own  Times,"  and  during 
the  winter  term,  Bosworth-Smith's  "  Rome  and 
Carthage."  There  is  one  exercise  a  week  when 
the  class  is  tested  on  its  knowledge  of  about  thirty 
pages  of  the  text-book,  with  comment  by  the 
teacher,  and  at  the  end  of  the  term  an  examination 
is  held  on  the  work  which  has  been  covered.  At 
Eton,  a  similar  system  prevails  under  the  name  of 
"extras,"  which,  according  to  the  syllabus,  provides 
an  interesting  study  of  some  historical  and  politi- 
cal questions. 

With  regard  to  English  history,  I  found  that 
comparatively  little  attention  was  paid  to  the  his- 
tory of  Great  Britain  during  the  present  century, 
or  to  speak  more  accurately,  since  the  passing  of 
the  Reform  Bill  in  1832.  This  is  unfortunate  and 
is  hardly  in  accord  with  the  Jubilee  spirit  in  1897, 
which  gloried  in  the  Victorian  era. 

Verily,  the  social  and  constitutional  progress  of 


224  English  Schools 

England  during  the  present  century,  makes  it  one 
of  its  most  interesting  and  important  epochs,  espe- 
cially with  regard  to  colonial  expansion  and  social 
betterment.  Yet  the  pupil  at  the  English  second- 
ary school  does  not  receive  much  instruction  in 
this  important  era  of  the  nation.  None  of  the  Ox- 
ford and  Cambridge  examination  papers,  that  I 
have  examined  since  1890,  specify  any  period  of 
English  history  later  than  1815.  The  same  is  true 
of  the  examination  papers  of  a  number  of  schools, 
in  which  little  was  found  touching  upon  the  Victo- 
rian era,  save  in  the  case  of  Malvern  and  Clifton, 
two  of  the  new  schools.  When  I  asked  for  an 
explanation  of  this  fact,  one  reply  given  was  that  a 
careful  study  of  the  period  would  rake  up  burning 
questions,  on  which  family  and  inherited  prejudices 
were  very  strong.  For  this  reason  it  was  thought 
best  to  avoid  anything  that  would  lead  to  wran- 
gling disputation. 

Possibly  it  may  be  due  to  the  same  insufficient 
reason  that  the  study  of  what  is  called  in  this 
country,  civil  government,  is  almost  entirely  neg- 
lected in  English  secondary  schools.  It  is  not 
mentioned  in  their  courses  of  study,  and  the  only 
school,  in  which  I  found  it  pursued  as  an  indepen- 
dent study,  was  Haileybury,  where  a  small  class 
was  taught  by  one  of  the  teachers  of  history 
already  mentioned,  who  was  using  with  his  form 


Civil  Government  225 

Miss  Buckland's  little  primer,  "  Our  National  In- 
stitutions." This  seems  to  be  a  very  serious  defect 
of  the  secondary  school  course  in  England,  as  com- 
pared with  Germany,  France,  or  the  United  States. 
In  support  of  this  statement  I  would  quote  from  a 
striking  address  on 1 "  The  Teaching  of  Civic  Duty," 
by  an  Englishman,  for  whom  citizens  of  the  United 
States  have  a  high  regard,  the  Hon.  James  Bryce. 

"  Boys  leave  our  so-called  secondary  schools  at 
sixteen,  seventeen,  and  eighteen,  leave  even  some 
of  the  greatest  and  most  costly  schools  in  the 
country,  having  received  no  regular  instruction  in 
the  principles  and  working  of  the  British  consti- 
tution, much  less  in  their  own  system  of  local 
government,  wherein  many  of  them  as  local  mag- 
nates are  soon  called  upon  to  take  part."  Professor 
Bryce's  noble  plea  was  delivered  to  an  audience  of 
elementary  schoolmasters,  but  it  is  a  trumpet  call 
to  public  schoolmasters  as  well  as  to  the  audience 
before  which  it  was  spoken.  The  admirable  sylla- 
bus on  "  The  Life  and  Duties  of  the  Citizen," 
which  is  prescribed  by  the  National  Educational 
Department  in  the  Evening  Continuation  School 
Code,  might  well  be  followed  in  the  great  public 
schools. 

The  time  allowance  for  the  regular  teaching  of 

1  Contemporary  Review,  July,  1893,  ^4,  P-  14.  Forum,  July,  1893, 
*5>  P-  552- 

q 


226  English  Schools 

history  in  most  English  schools,  shows  less  con- 
sideration for  the  subject  than  in  France  or  Ger- 
many. In  few  schools  are  more  than  two  hours 
per  week  given  to  classroom  work  in  history;  but 
at  least  one  hour  a  week  is  given  to  history  in  each 
year  of  the  school  course,  which  in  the  case  of 
most  public  schools  covers  five  or  six  years.  The 
order  of  teaching  the  different  periods  of  history 
varies  very  much,  and  as  in  the  cycles  from  Win- 
chester, already  quoted,  seems  not  to  have  been 
arranged  on  any  distinct  pedagogical  plan. 

The  subordinate  position  of  history  in  the  school 
courses  is  indicated  not  only  by  the  small  time 
allotment,  but  also  by  the  fact  that  not  until  re- 
cently was  this  subject  taught  by  specialists,  viz. 
by  men  that  had  been  specially  trained  in  the 
subject  of  history,  and  had  devoted  themselves 
very  largely  to  teaching  that  subject.  The  spirit 
of  the  English  secondary  school  is  against  special- 
ization in  teaching,  except  in  the  case  of  science, 
modern  languages,  and  mathematics.  The  form- 
master  usually  teaches  Latin,  Greek,  Scripture, 
English,  and  history,  while  in  the  latter  subject  he 
may  have  had  no  special  training.  A  welcome 
reform  in  this  respect  has  already  begun,  which  it 
is  to  be  hoped  will  probably  gain  ground  and  im- 
prove the  history  teaching  in  the  schools.  Several 
of  the  larger  schools  have  now  on  their  staff  his- 


Methods  227 

tory  masters  who  have  won  distinction  in  the  honor 
schools  of  history  at  Oxford  or  Cambridge,  and 
bring  to  the  teaching  of  this  important  subject  the 
enthusiasm  and  skill,  which  are  likely  to  win  a 
larger  recognition  for  this  subject  in  the  school 
curriculum  in  the  future.  It  is  also  to  be  hoped 
that  it  may  win  individual  recognition  and  place 
on  the  printed  course  of  study,  and  not,  as  is  often 
the  case  at  present,  be  classed  under  English 
with  English  literature.  Then  the  searcher  after 
knowledge  will  be  able  to  tell  more  easily  what  is 
the  average  time  allotment  for  history,  and  this 
worthy  subject  will  gain  something  in  estimation 
by  being  classed  by  itself,  separate  from  other 
English  branches. 

As  to  methods  of  teaching  history,  the  system 
in  the  lower  form  generally  consists  of  the  thor- 
ough study  of  a  reliable,  but  not  elaborate,  text- 
book. The  work  of  the  pupil  is  more  often  tested 
by  written  work  than  by  oral  questioning.  The 
custom  of  "fluent"  recitations  on  an  assigned 
topic,  which  I  have  seen  admirably  carried  on  in 
German  gymnasia,  is  not  at  all  common  in  English 
schools.  Certainly  one  of  the  valuable  benefits  of 
studying  history  ought  to  be  the  development  of 
the  power  of  oral  expression,  which  such  methods 
promote.  Equally  valuable  also  is  the  mental 
discipline  and  acuteness  to  be  derived  from  rapid 


228  English  Schools 

and  incisive  questioning,  and  prompt  answers,  a 
system  of  cross-examination,  which  is  commonly 
known  in  this  country  under  the  phrase  "quiz." 
The  absence  of  this  system  of  fluent  recitation  of 
historical  facts  is  probably  due  to  the  prejudice  so 
common  in  England  against  fluency  of  speech  as 
a  possible  indication  of  superficiality  or  lack  of 
scholarship. 

The  system  of  teaching  known  in  the  United 
States  as  the  "  library  method,"  or  the  "  laboratory 
method,"  viz.  the  use  of  several  books  in  the  study 
of  a  list  of  topics,  is  seldom  found  except  in  the 
highest  forms  where  pupils  are  making  special 
preparation  for  the  history  scholarship  examina- 
tions at  the  universities.  At  this  stage  of  the 
course  the  text-book  work  is  supplemented  by  lec- 
tures by  the  teacher,  so  that  the  pupils  attain  facil- 
ity in  taking  notes,  and  by  collateral  reading  so 
that  they  learn  how  to  consult  with  permanent 
profit  the  books  in  a  library.  In  this  way,  to  use 
Dr.  Arnold's  phrase,  "they  learn  how  to  read." 
They  thus  become  acquainted  with  the  methods 
which  will  be  of  great  service  to  them  when  they 
go  in  for  honors  in  the  School  of  History  at  Ox- 
ford, or  the  Historical  Tripos  at  Cambridge.  This 
power  of  going  to  the  heart  of  a  book  and  secur- 
ing a  deposit  of  its  contents  in  their  minds  is  a 
characteristic  of  the  best  boys  in  the  Sixth  at  a 


Effectiveness  229 

great  public  school.  For  hard  and  thorough  read- 
ing is  the  essential  condition  of  success  in  winning 
a  school  exhibition  or  an  entrance  college  scholar- 
ship, which  are  the  intellectual  honors  crowning 
an  able  boy's  career  at  school.  Such  reading, 
however,  is  generally  confined  to  secondary  histo- 
ries. The  earnest  use  of  the  sources  with  second- 
ary school  pupils  is  very  rare  in  England,  and  such 
methods  are  not  much  used  with  the  average  stu- 
dent at  the  universities.  Essay  writing  on  his- 
torical subjects  is  very  commonly  followed  in  the 
higher  forms  with  success  and  profit,  not  only  for 
its  own  sake,  as  a  means  of  culture,  but  also  as  a 
means  of  preparatory  training  for  this  work  in  the 
university,  inasmuch  as  in  the  Honor  School  of 
History  at  Oxford  one  of  the  most  important  and 
valuable  means  of  training  is  the  essay  work  with 
the  tutor. 

In  conclusion,  it  would  hardly  be  proper  for  a 
visitor  with  so  limited  an  experience  of  the  actual 
teaching  of  history  in  English  schools,  to  give  a 
general  judgment  as  to  the  quality  of  the  teaching 
of  this  important  subject  in  the  great  public  schools. 
He  may  be  permitted  to  quote,  instead,  the  public 
testimony  on  this  point  of  three  Englishmen,  who 
are  competent  judges.  The  first  is  Professor  Bryce, 
who,  in  the  article  already  referred  to,  says,  "  His- 
tory is  of  all  subjects  which  schools  attempt  to 


230  English  Schools 

handle  perhaps  the  worst  taught."  The  second  is 
an  eminent  teacher  and  writer  of  history  and  an 
old  public  school  boy.  He  says,  "  The  teaching  of 
history  in  the  English  public  schools  is  not  nearly 
so  efficient  as  teaching  in  other  branches  of  know- 
ledge." The  third  is  the  editor  of  the  London 
Journal  of  Education,  and  master  of  the  modern 
side  in  Merchant  Taylor's  School,  London.  His 
words  in  the  issue  of  February,  1899,  are,  "It  is 
generally  admitted  that  the  teaching  of  history  is 
exceedingly  bad  in  our  schools — with,  of  course, 
marked  exceptions." 

Secondary  education  is  at  present  the  burning 
question  among  educators  in  England,  and  a  great 
change  in  the  relation  of  the  schools  to  the  govern- 
ment is  at  hand.  Doubtless  the  next  few  years 
will  see  a  general  improvement  in  history  teaching, 
especially  if  the  classicists  will  be  willing  to  surren- 
der to  the  historians  a  little  of  the  time  allotment 
which  they  now  demand  for  the  ancient  languages. 
Yet  with  all  the  deficiencies  of  the  present  situa- 
tion, the  writer,  in  his  admiration  for  the  work  of 
the  English  public  school,  feels  it  but  just  to  say 
that  the  history  teaching  reflects  the  general  char- 
acteristics of  the  whole  school  system,  thorough- 
ness and  virility. 


Appendix  VI 

History  in   Canadian  Secondary 
Schools1 


BY   GEORGE    M.    WRONG 

IN  Canada  there  has  been  no  really  great  crisis 
like  that  of  the  Revolution  or  of  the  Civil  War 
in  the  United  States  to  intensify  historical  in- 
terest Many  a  citizen  of  Canada  is  not  sure 
whether  the  old  land  of  his  ancestors  or  the  new 
one  of  his  birth  or  adoption  is  his  real  country. 
He  still  belongs  to  both,  and  his  patriotic  interest 
is  widely  diffused.  Perhaps,  as  a  result,  he  is  more 
cosmopolitan,  but  he  is  usually  wanting  in  that 
almost  fierce  love  for  his  country's  past  which  in 
the  United  States  is  so  keen  a  stimulus  to  histori- 
cal study.  A  natural  situation  in  Canada  inimical 

1  This  short  article  on  "  History  in  the  Canadian  Schools  "  was 
written,  at  the  request  of  the  committee,  by  Professor  Wrong,  pro- 
fessor of  history  in  the  University  of  Toronto.  No  study  of  Cana- 
dian schools  has  been  made  by  the  committee. 

231 


232  Canadian  Schools 

to  history  has  not  been  improved  by  enlightened 
policy.  The  Canadian  universities,  like  the  Scotch, 
have,  until  recently,  quite  neglected  history.  The 
subject  had  only  a  minor  place  in  the  curriculum, 
and  no  adequate  training  in  historical  method  was 
furnished.  Happily  a  marked  change  has  taken 
place.  In  the  two  largest  Canadian  universities 
(the  University  of  Toronto  and  McGill  University) 
history  now  occupies  a  respectable  place,  though 
it  still  receives  far  less  attention  than  universities 
of  similar  importance  give  it  in  the  United  States. 
There  is  no  uniform  educational  system  in  Can- 
ada ;  the  government  of  each  Province  is  charged 
with  education  as  is  that  of  each  State  in  the  United 
States.  The  Federal  Government  in  Canada  has 
not  even  the  shadowy  oversight  of  education  that 
is  implied  in  the  United  States  by  the  existence  of 
a  federal  commissioner  of  education.  Nearly  five 
of  the  six  millions  of  people  in  Canada  are  in  the 
provinces  of  Ontario  and  Quebec.  In  Quebec  the 
schools  are  chiefly  French,  and  are  largely  under 
the  control  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Ob- 
viously the  province  of  Ontario  must  be  the 
principal  field  of  our  inquiries.  This  province, 
containing  nearly  half  of  the  population  of  Can- 
ada, owes  the  first  organization  of  its  government 
to  the  American  Revolution.  Thousands  of 
Loyalists,  who  refused  to  consent  to  the  sever- 


Organization  233 

ance  of  the  American  colonies  from  Great  Britain, 
found  a  refuge  in  what  is  now  Ontario.  Many  of 
them  belonged  to  the  educated  classes,  and  had  a 
zeal  for  education  similar  to  that  of  the  New  Eng- 
land pioneers.  The  early  governors  too  were  on 
the  whole  enlightened  men,  who  for  many  years 
wielded  a  power  almost  despotic.  Extensive  lands 
were  set  apart  for  educational  purposes.  For  a 
long  time  the  Anglican  Church  struggled  to  con- 
trol state-aided  education.  She  failed  in  the  end. 
Roman  Catholics  still  have  separate  schools  sup- 
ported by  the  rates  levied  on  the  taxpayers  adher- 
ing to  that  Church,  but  the  remainder  of  the  state 
system  is  now  completely  secularized. 

The  secondary  schools  are  numerous,  and  are 
sometimes  found  in  villages  of  less  than  one 
thousand  inhabitants.  The  state  university  for  a 
long  time  charged  an  annual  fee  of  only  ten 
dollars.  Now  it  is  but  forty  dollars,  so  that  a 
college  course  is  within  the  reach  of  a  large  num- 
ber. It  is  becoming  not  uncommon  for  a  farmer's 
son  to  take  a  degree  in  the  university  before  set- 
tling down  upon  the  farm. 

Until  within  the  last  ten  years  classics  and  mathe- 
matics claimed  chief  attention.  Now,  modern  lan- 
guages are  on  about  the  same  footing  with  them, 
the  relative  standard  in  mathematics  being  prob- 
ably the  highest  of  all  the  subjects.  History  has 


234  Canadian  Schools 

a  fairly  good  place  in  the  lower  forms,  but  an  un- 
important one  in  the  work  for  the  college  entrance 
examination,  being  worth  only  one-third  of  the 
value  of  Greek  or  Latin,  and  one-sixth  of  that  of 
mathematics. 

The  curriculum  in  the  secondary  schools  of  On- 
tario is  limited  to  the  history  of  ancient  Greece 
and  Rome,  of  England,  and  of  Canada.  In  some 
of  the  smaller  provinces  an  outline  of  general 
history  is  included.  History  is  compulsory  in 
every  year  of  the  course,  which  usually  extends 
over  about  four  years.  In  some  schools  five  hours 
a  week  are  given  to  history ;  the  average  would 
be  about  three  hours.  The  larger  schools  with 
five  or  more  teachers  have  usually  a  specialist  de- 
voted to  history  alone.  In  some  of  the  smaller 
schools  any  member  of  the  staff  may  have  a  class 
in  history  thrust  upon  him. 

Let  me  summarize  briefly  my  criticisms  and 
suggestions :  — 

I.  The  adequate  training  of  the  teacher  was  for 
a  long  time  neglected.  There  has  been  a  twofold 
reason  for  this.  On  the  one  hand  the  real  diffi- 
culties both  of  teaching  and  of  learning  history 
have  been  underestimated.  Roederer,  the  minister 
of  the  first  Napoleon,  banished  the  teaching  of 
history  from  the  French  schools  on  the  ground 
that  the  subject  could  easily  be  learned  without 


Teachers  235 

being  taught.  This  view  is  still  widespread.  In 
Canada  it  has  hardly  yet  been  realized  that  the 
truths  of  history  are  subtle,  and  may  easily  be 
missed,  and  that,  to  teach  it,  there  must  be  added 
to  a  thoughtful  study  of  the  facts  a  vigorous  and 
disciplined  imagination,  and  the  power  of  arrang- 
ing complex  material  effectively.  Because  the 
teaching  was  usually  bad,  pupils  came  to  regard 
history  as  a  dreary  and  painful  study.  The  other 
cause  of  the  insufficient  training  of  teachers  of 
history  has  been  the  defective  work  of  the  univer- 
sities, already  referred  to.  The  education  depart- 
ment for  Ontario  has  been  quick  to  utilize  for  the 
schools  the  better  work  which  the  colleges  are  now 
doing  in  history.  There  is  a  system  of  specialist 
certificates  for  teachers.  To  teach  classics,  mathe- 
matics, etc.,  a  high  specialistic  qualification  had 
long  been  required.  For  a  long  time  any  one  was 
allowed  to  teach  history,  but  now  a  specialist  in 
history  must  pass  examinations  hardly  less  diffi- 
cult than  those  for  an  honor  degree  in  modern 
history  at  Oxford.  The  improvement  of  the  teach- 
ing of  history,  as  a  result  of  this  policy,  will  prob- 
ably soon  be  very  marked.  Of  course  it  will  still 
happen  in  the  smaller  schools  that  history  will  be 
taught  by  masters  with  no  special  qualifications, 
for  these  schools  cannot  have  a  master  devoted 
exclusively  to  history.  The  point  gained,  however, 


236  Canadian  Schools 

is  that  history  is  now  on  the  same  footing  as  othei 
departments  with  regard  to  specialist  training. 

2.  The   curriculum    is   defective.     The   history 
of  Greece  and   Rome  to  the  Augustan  age,  and 
that  of  England  and  Canada,  do  not  form  a  well- 
balanced   course   of    historical   study.      It   leaves 
untouched,  almost,  the  great  epochs  of  continental 
Europe,  and  makes  it  possible    for  a  student  to 
go  up  to  the  university,  having  scarcely  heard  of 
St.  Bernard,  Charles  V.,  Frederick  the  Great,  or 
Mirabeau.     In  Canada,  a  part  of  the  British  Em- 
pire, pupils  know  nothing  of  other  portions  of  the 
same  Empire  —  India  or  Australia ;  and,  as  far  as 
I  can  learn,  the  history  of  the  United  States  is  not 
taught  in  any  Canadian  school.     The  curriculum 
suggested  by  the  Committee  of  Seven  is  hardly 
suitable  for  Canada,  but  that  portion  of  it  which 
relates  to  the  history  of  continental  Europe  might 
well  be  adopted  in  the  Canadian  schools. 

3.  The  time  given  to  history  is  usually,  though 
not  always,  inadequate.    New  subjects  are  making 
claims,  sometimes  extravagant,  upon  the  time  of  the 
schools.     In  a  large  secondary  school  in  Toronto, 
the  time  available  weekly  was  divided  into  thirty-five 
periods.    Of  these  the  physical  sciences  claimed  at 
first  twenty-two,  much  to  the  amusement  of  the 
other   departments.       History   with    no   technical 
language,   appears   to   be  easier   than   chemistry, 


Subjects  and  Methods        237 

and  it  may  plausibly  be  urged  that  it  should  take 
a  minor  place  upon  the  time-table.  Friends  of 
history  ought  to  insist  that  an  extension  of  the 
curriculum  should  go  hand  in  hand  with  an  exten- 
sion of  the  time  for  instruction.  It  should  be  laid 
down  as  a  general  rule  that  the  teaching  must 
cover  the  whole  ground  of  the  curriculum.  The 
pupils  usually  remember  what  they  read  in  the 
text-book  only  when  they  hear  it  talked  about  in 
the  class. 

4.  The  text-books  are  inferior  in  quality.  The 
Education  Department  requires  the  same  text-book 
to  be  used  in  all  the  schools.  For  English  history 
the  highest  classes  use  Green's  "  Short  History  of 
the  English  People"  —  by  far  the  best  book  on  the 
list,  but  in  my  opinion  not  a  good  text-book.  The 
other  books  are,  on  the  whole,  colorless  compila- 
tions, "  confused  in  arrangement,"  as  one  teacher 
writes  to  me,  "bad  in  diction,  and  with  no  sense 
of  proportion."  These  defects  are  not  peculiar  to 
the  books  used  in  Canada.  To  pick  out  the  salient 
features  of  a  nation's  history  and  to  describe  them 
with  both  scientific  precision  and  literary  charm 
are  tasks  requiring  rare  gifts.  Until  our  best 
minds  turn  to  the  unattractive  but  useful  task  of 
writing  history  text-books,  we  shall  not  have  what 
we  need. 

One  may  say  in  closing  that  though  history  has 


238  Canadian  Schools 

not  as  yet  really  flourished  in  the  Canadian  schools, 
its  status  is  steadily  improving.  The  key  of  the 
situation  is  really  with  the  colleges.  These  train 
the  teacher,  and  an  able  teacher  properly  trained 
will  give  dignity  to  and  win  a  place  for  the  subject. 
With  such  teachers  the  dreary  history  lesson  has 
been  transformed  in  some  places  in  Canada  into 
an  animated  lecture.  Nearly  every  school  has  a 
library — often  very  incomplete,  of  course.  A  good 
teacher  with  a  good  library  accessible  to  him, 
to  which  the  pupils  may  also  be  referred  —  these 
will  be  the  two  best  agents  for  improving  the 
status  of  history.  It  is  still  true  that  the  subject 
is  often  neglected,  and  I  see  no  hope  that  a  uni- 
form standard  can  be  adopted  in  all  the  secondary 
schools.  Those  with  a  small  staff  sometimes  try 
to  cover  as  many  subjects  as  do  the  larger  schools, 
and  the  teaching  of  some  branches  must  be  slighted. 
One  effective  way  of  increasing  the  attention  to 
history  in  the  work  for  college  entrance  would  be 
to  establish  competitive  scholarships  at  matricula- 
tion for  excellence  in  history.  Such  scholarships 
have  done  much  for  Greek,  Latin,  and  Modern 
Languages.  They  have  not  yet  been  offered  in 
connection  with  history,  and  naturally  the  best 
pupils  bend  their  energies  to  the  subjects  that 
have  the  prospect  of  reward. 


Appendix  VII 

Some  Books  and  Articles  on  the 
Teaching  of  History 

THE  following  titles  have  been  selected  from  the 
vast  number  of  books  and  articles  relating  to  his- 
tory and  its  teaching,  in  the  hope  that  they  may 
prove  helpful  to  teachers  who  may  not  already  be 
acquainted  with  them.  Longer  lists  will  be  found 
in  Channing  and  Hart's  Guide  to  the  Study  of 
American  History,  §  15,  and  at  the  beginning  of 
the  various  chapters  of  Hinsdale's  How  to  Study 
and  Teach  History ;  for  discussions  that  have  ap- 
peared since  the  publication  of  these  works,  see 
particularly  the  Educational  Review,  the  School 
Review,  and  the  Proceedings  of  the  National  Edu- 
cational Association,  the  Association  of  Colleges 
and  Preparatory  Schools  in  the  Middle  States  and 
the  similar  Association  in  New  England,  and 
the  New  England  History  Teachers'  Association. 
Mr.  J.  I.  Wyer,  of  the  library  of  the  University  of 
Nebraska,  has  compiled  for  the  American  Histori- 
239 


240  Brief  Bibliography 

cal  Association  an  extensive  Bibliography  of  the 
Study  and  Teaching  of  History,  which  it  is  hoped 
will  soon  be  published.  The  prices  quoted  below 
are  taken  from  the  publishers'  catalogues ;  in  the 
case  of  works  in  foreign  languages  they  do  not  in- 
clude the  cost  of  binding. 

Books  with  which  every  Teacher  of  History 
should  be  acquainted 

CHARLES  KENDALL  ADAMS,  A  Manual  of  Historical  Lit- 
erature. Third  edition.  New  York,  Harpers,  1889. 
$2.50. 

Contains  an  introduction  on  the  study  of  history,  "  brief 
descriptions  of  the  most  important  histories  in  English, 
French,  and  German,"  and  suggestions  as  to  courses  of 
reading  on  particular  countries  or  periods.  The  work 
needs  revision.  SONNENSCHEIN'S  Bibliography  of  History 
(reprinted  from  his  Best  Books  and  Reader's  Guide,  Lon- 
don, 1897,  4-r.  6</.)  is  more  recent,  and,  in  some  respects, 
more  helpful. 

The  American  Historical  Review.  New  York,  Macmil- 
lan,  quarterly  since  1895.  13.00  a  year  (free  to 
members  of  the  American  Historical  Association). 

Every  progressive  teacher  of  history  should  keep  abreast 
of  current  publications  on  historical  topics.  The  most 
convenient  method  is  by  means  of  the  book  reviews  and 
notes  in  the  American  Historical  Review. 


Books  on  Methods  241 

EDWARD  CHANNING  and  ALBERT  BUSHNELL  HART,  Guidi 
to  the  Study  of  American  History.  Boston,  Ginn, 
1896.  $2.00. 

Includes  a  consideration  of  methods  and  materials,  a 
bibliography  of  American  history,  and  a  series  of  topical 
references.  Especially  intended  for  the  teacher  of  Amer- 
ican history. 

BURKE  AARON  HINSDALE,  How  to  Study  and  Teach  His- 
tory, with  Particular  Reference  to  the  History  of  the 
United  States.      (International  Education   Series.) 
New  York,  Appleton,  1894.     $1.50. 
"No  effort  is  made  to  tell  the  teacher  just  what  he 
shall  teach,  or  just  how  he  shall  teach  it.     The  aim  is 
rather  to  state  the  uses  of  history,  to  define  in  a  general 
way  its  field,  to  present  and  to  illustrate  criteria  for  the 
choice  of  facts,  to  emphasize  the  organization  of  facts  with 
reference  to  the  three  principles  of  association,  to  indi- 
cate sources  of  information,  to  describe  the  qualifications 
of  the  teacher,  and  finally  to  illustrate  causation  and  the 
grouping  of  facts  by  drawing  the  outlines  of  some  impor- 
tant chapters  of  American  history."     Written  particularly 
for  teachers  in  elementary  and  secondary  schools. 

CHARLES  VICTOR  LANGLOIS  and  CHARLES  SEIGNOBOS,  In- 
troduction to  the  Study  of  History.     Translated  by 
G.  G.  Berry,  with  a  preface   by  F.  York   Powell. 
New  York,  Holt,  1898.     #2.25. 
The  best  brief  treatise  on  the  methods  of  historical 

investigation.     Appendix  I.  treats   briefly  of  history  in 

French  secondary  schools. 


242  Brief  Bibliography 

Report  of  the  Committee  [of  Ten]  on  Secondary  School 
Studies.  Washington,  Bureau  of  Education,  1893. 
Now  out  of  print  in  this  form.  Also  reprinted  by 
the  American  Book  Company,  New  York,  1894. 
30  cents. 

Pp.  162-203  contain  the  report  of  the  Madison  Con- 
ference on  history,  civil  government,  and  political  econ- 
omy ;  pp.  185-200  are  devoted  to  "  methods  of  historical 
teaching." 

Other  Noteworthy  Books  on  Historical 
Methods 

MARY  SHELDON  BARNES,  Studies  in  Historical  Method. 

Boston,  Heath,  1896.  90  cents. 
"Written  especially  for  the  teacher  who  wishes  to 
specialize  his  work ;  "  particularly  suggestive  in  regard  to 
children's  ideas  of  history.  Contains  brief  bibliographies  : 
sources,  pp.  8-10 ;  helps  for  the  study  of  current  his- 
tory, pp.  14-15  ;  bibliographical  aids,  maps  and  atlases, 
chronologies,  pp.  34-37  ;  works  on  method,  pp.  139-144. 

JOHANN  GUSTAV  DROYSEN,    Outline  of  the  Principles  of 
History.    Translated  by  E.  Benjamin  Andrews.    Bos- 
ton, Ginn,  1893.     $1.00. 
A  philosophical  discussion  of  the  nature  of  history. 

EDWARD  A.  FREEMAN,  Methods  of  Historical  Study.    Lon- 
don and  New  York,  Macmillan,  1886. 
Interesting  lectures   on   various   aspects  of  historical 
study  in  general. 


Books  on  Methods  243 

G.  STANLEY  HALL,  editor.    Methods  of  Teaching  History. 
Second  edition.     Boston,  Heath,  1885.     $1.50. 

A  series  of  papers  by  teachers  of  history  on  various 
aspects  of  historical  study,  particularly  as  seen  in  colleges 
and  universities.  Now  somewhat  out  of  date;  a  third 
edition  is  proposed. 

WILLIAM  HARRISON  MACE,  Method  in  History.     Boston, 
Ginn,  1897.     $1.00. 

Treats  of  the  "organization  of  historical  material," 
particularly  as  illustrated  by  American  history. 


Ten  Useful  Articles  on  Methods  of  Teaching 
History  in  Secondary  Schools 

This  short  list  contains  only  articles  which  deal  directly 
and  in  a  helpful  way  with  problems  of  teaching ;  articles 
on  the  nature  of  historical  study  in  general,  on  the  place 
of  history  in  schools,  or  on  the  arrangement  of  the  cur- 
riculum in  history,  are  not  included. 

MARY  SHELDON  BARNES,  The  Teaching  of  Local  History. 
In  Educational  Review  (December,  1895),  X.  481- 
488. 

A  more  special  article  on  the  same  theme  is  that  of 
R.  G.  Thwaites,  The  Study  of  Local  History  in  the  Wiscon- 
sin Schools,  in  Wisconsin  Journal  of  Education  (Novem- 
ber, 1888),  XVIII.  465-476. 


244  Brief  Bibliography 

JAMES  BRVCE,  The  Teaching  of  Civic  Duty.  In  Forum 
(July,  1893),  XV.  552-566;  Contemporary  Review 
(July,  1893),  LXIV.  14-28. 

ALBERT  BUSHNELL  HART,  How  to  Teach  History  in  Sec- 
ondary Schools.     In  Syracuse  Academy  (September. 
October,  1887),  II.  256-265,  306-315. 
Reprinted  in  his  Studies  in  American  Education  (New 

York,  Longmans,  1895),  91-121. 

RAY  GREENE  RULING,  History  in  Secondary  Education. 
In  Educational  Review  (May,  June,  1894),  VII. 
448-459  ;  VIII.  43-53. 

J.  W.  MACDONALD,  Civics  by  the  Parliamentary  Method. 
In  Syracuse  Academy  (May,  1892),  VII.  217-227. 

Practical  Methods  of  Teaching  History.     In  Educational 

Review  (April,  1898),  XV.  313-330. 
Report  to  the  New  England  History  Teachers'  Associ- 
ation, with  discussion  by  President  Eliot.     Printed  also 
in  the  Register  and  Report  of  the  First  Annual  Meeting 
of  the  Association,  Boston,  1897. 

Report  of  the  Conference  on  Entrance  Requirements  in 
History  (to  the  New  England  Association  of  Col- 
leges and  Preparatory  Schools) .     In  School  Review 
(October,  1895),  in-  469-485. 
For  discussion   of   this    report,   see    School  Review 

(December,  1895),  III.  597-631  ;  Educational  Review 

(December,  1895),  X.  417-429. 


Articles  on  Methods          245 

JAMES  E.  RUSSELL,  History  and  Geography  in  the  Higher 
Schools  of  Germany.     In  School  Review  (May,  Octo- 
ber, 1897),  V.  257-268,  539-547- 
Also  forms  part  of  his  German  Higher  Schools  (New 

York,  Longmans,  1898),  291-311. 

LUCY  M.  SALMON,  The  Teaching  of  History  in  Academies 
and  Colleges.  In  Syracuse  Academy  (September, 
1890),  V.  283-292. 

Reprinted  in  Woman  and  the  Higher  Education  (New 
York,  Harpers,  1893),  131-152. 

ANNA  BOYNTON  THOMPSON,  Suggestions  to  Teachers.  In 
Channing's  Students'  History  of  the  United  States 
(New  York,  Macmillan,  1898),  xxix-xxxv. 


Valuable  Works  in  Foreign  Languages 

RAFAEL  ALTAMIRA,  La  Ensenanza  de  la  Historia.     Second 

edition,  Madrid,  Suarez,  1895.     $2.00. 
Largely  a   description  of  the   secondary  and  higher 
instruction  in  history  in  Europe  and  America. 

ERNST  BERNHEIM,  Lehrbuch  der  historischen  Methode. 
Second  edition.  Leipzig,  Duncker  and  Humblot, 
1894.  $3.00;  bound,  $3.50. 

An  admirable  manual,  discussing  the  nature  of  his- 
torical science,  its  relations  to  other  subjects,  and  the 
principles  of  historical  criticism  and  interpretation.  Ex- 
cellent bibliographies. 


246  Brief  Bibliography 

OSKAR  JAGER,  Didaktik  und  Methodik  des  Geschichtsunter- 
richts.  Munich,  Beck,  1895.  75  cents.  (Reprinted 
from  Baumeister's  Handbuch  der  Erziehungs-  und 
Unterrichtslehre  fur  hohere  Schulen.) 

Gives  a  detailed  exposition  of  the  methods  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  various  classes  of  the  German  gymnasium. 

CHARLES  VICTOR  LANGLOIS,  Manuel  de  Bibliographic  His- 
torique.  Part  I.  Paris,  Hachette,  1896.  60  cents. 

The  best  account  of  the  bibliographical  tools  of  the 
historian. 

ERNEST  LAVISSE.  A  propos  de  nos  Ecoles.  Paris,  Colin, 
1895.  70  cents. 

M.  Lavisse  is  an  exceedingly  stimulating  writer  on  his- 
tory and  its  teaching,  but  unfortunately  his  essays  are 
scattered  in  various  publications.  This  volume  includes 
(pp.  77-107)  his  report  of  1890  on  methods  of  teaching 
history  in  secondary  schools. 


Articles  on  the  Teaching  of  History  written 
from  the  Point  of  View  of  English  Schools 

ALICE  ANDREWS,  Teaching  Modern  History  to  Senior 
Classes.  In  Work  and  Play  in  Girls'  Schools  (Lon- 
don and  New  York,  Longmans,  1899),  124-158. 
$2.25. 


Foreign  Articles  247 

OSCAR  BROWNING,  The  Teaching  of  History  in  Schools.  In 
Royal  Historical  Society  Transactions,  new  series, 
IV.  69-84. 

R.  F.  CHARLES,  History  Teaching  in  Schools.  In  London 
Journal  of  Education  (June,  1895),  XVII.  379. 

A.  H.  GARLICK,  A  New  Manual  of  Method.  London 
and  New  York,  Longmans,  1896.  $1.20. 

Chapter  XIII.  deals  with  history. 

R.  SOMERVELL,  Modern  History.  In  P.  A.  Barnett's 
Teaching  and  Organization  (London  and  New 
York,  Longmans,  1897),  161-179.  $2.00. 

C.  H.  SPENCE,  A.  L.  SMITH,  The  Teaching  of  Modern 
History.  In  Essays  on  Secondary  Education,  edited 
by  Christopher  Cookson  (Oxford,  Clarendon  Press, 
1898),  161-195.  $1.10. 

J.  WELLS,  The  Teaching  of  History  in  Schools.  (A  lec- 
ture delivered  at  the  University  Extension  Summer 
Meeting  in  Oxford.)  London,  Methuen,  1892.  6  d. 

H.  L.  WITHERS,  Ancient  History.  In  P.  A.  Barnett's 
Teaching  and  Organization  (London  and  New  York, 
Longmans,  1897),  180-198.  $2.00. 


Appendix  VIII 

Maps  and  Atlases 

INTELLIGENT  and  effective  teaching  of  history 
demands  at  every  stage  a  well-chosen  supply  of 
maps  and  atlases.  Besides  a  set  of  political  and 
physical  maps  of  the  continents,  such  as  are  now 
found  in  almost  every  school,  there  are  needed 
maps  in  greater  detail,  both  political  and  physical, 
of  the  principal  countries  whose  history  is  studied 
in  the  school,  as  well  as  sets  of  historical  wall  maps, 
indexed  historical  atlases,  and  a  good  modern  ref- 
erence atlas  of  the  world.1  Small  outline  maps  in 
the  possession  of  each  pupil  may  also  be  used  to 
advantage.2  This  committee  does  not  feel  itself 

1  Maps  on  lantern  slides  are  much  cheaper  than  wall  maps,  and 
may  easily  be  prepared  or  modified  to  illustrate  any  desired  subject. 
A  collection  of  map-slides  sufficient  for  all  the  needs  of  secondary 
instruction  in  history  may  be  got  for  $15.0x5  or  $20.00,  or  even  less. 

2  Such  are  the    Outline  Maps  and  Progressive    Outline  Maps 
published  by  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston  ;   the  suggestive  Relief 
Practice  Maps  of  William  Beverly  Harrison,  New  York ;  the   Out- 
line Maps  of  Rand,  McNally,  &  Co.,  Chicago;    and  the  detailed 
sheets  issued  by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 

248 


Ancient  History  249 

called  upon  to  give  a  complete  annotated  catalogue 
of  the  maps  and  atlases  available  for  use  in  sec- 
ondary schools ;  but  it  has  seemed  within  the 
province  of  the  committee  to  suggest  what  may  be 
regarded  as  the  minimum  geographical  equipment 
for  treating  the  various  periods  of  history  which 
have  been  outlined  in  the  body  of  the  report. 
The  prices  are  quoted  from  publishers'  price-lists ; 
in  case  of  foreign  works  they  do  not  include  the 
duty,  when  imported  by  an  individual. 

i.    Ancient  History 

The  best  wall  maps  for  the  study  of  ancient 
geography  are  the  Wandkarten  zur  alten  Geschichte, 
prepared  under  the  direction  of  Heinrich  Kiepert 
and  published  in  Berlin  by  D.  Reimer.  The  Amer- 
ican agents  are  Rand,  McNally,  &  Co.,  Chicago. 
The  American  prices  for  individual  maps,  mounted 
on  common  rollers,  run  from  $6.00  to  $8.00 ;  the 
full  set  in  a  case,  with  spring  rollers,  costs  $88. OO. 
In  Germany  single  maps  vary  in  price  from  15  to 
22  marks,  according  to  map  and  mounting,  and 
the  cost  of  a  set,  without  a  case,  is  correspond- 
ingly less.  The  full  set  is  desirable ;  the  maps  of 
Greece,  Italy,  and  the  Roman  Empire  are  indis- 
pensable. The  school  should  also  possess  good 
physical  wall  maps  of  Greece,  Italy,  and  the  Medi- 
terranean lands  as  a  whole. 


250  Maps  and  Atlases 

The  best  desk  atlas  of  ancient  history  is  also :  — 

KIEPERT,  Atlas  Antiquus.  Twelve  Maps  of  the  Ancient 
World.  American  edition,  Boston,  B.  H.  Sanborn  & 
Co.,  1892.  $2.00. 

Others  are :  — 

Ginn  and  Company's  Classical  Atlas.     Boards,  £1.40; 

cloth,  $2.30. 
Longman's  Classical  Atlas.     $2.00. 

At  least  one  such  atlas  should  always  be  at  hand, 
and  it  may  often  be  possible  to  require  pupils  to 
procure  copies  for  themselves. 

A  more  elaborate  work  is :  — 

SpRUNER-SiEGLiN,  Atlas  Antiquus.  Gotha,  Perthes.  In 
parts,  20  marks ;  separate  maps,  80  pfennigs  each. 

For  maps  illustrating  the  early  Middle  Ages, 
see  the  following  section.  Some  of  the  collections 
there  mentioned  also  cover  ancient  history;  the 
first  part  of  MacCoun's  Historical  Geography  Charts 
of  Europe  is  entitled  "  Ancient  and  Classical,"  and 
is  sold  separately  (Boston,  Silver,  Burdett,  &  Co., 
$15.00). 

2.    Mediaeval  and  Modern  History 

The  first  essential  for  the  teaching  of  mediaeval 
and  modern  history  is  a  large  map  of  Europe ; 
ordinary  maps  are  apt  to  be  too  small  to  render 


Mediaeval  and  Modern        251 

much  service  in  historical  instruction.  If  the  school 
can  have  but  one  large  map  it  should  be  physical, 
since  the  detail  of  the  modern  political  map  obscures 
the  fundamental  geographical  features  and  confuses 
the  pupil  with  modern  boundary  lines.1  This  should 
be  supplemented  by  a  series  of  historical  wall  maps, 
of  which  the  most  scholarly  is  the  Historischer 
Wandatlas  of  Spruner-Bretschneider,  a  set  of  ten 
maps,  62  by  52  inches,  covering  the  period  from 
A.D.  350  to  1815.  (Gotha,  Perthes,  1894;  in  loose 
sheets,  56  marks;  mounted,  in  a  portfolio,  90 
marks.)  The  mediaeval  and  modern  section  of  the 
Historical  Geography  Charts  of  Europe,  prepared  by 
Townsend  MacCoun  (Boston,  Silver,  Burdett,  & 
Co.,  $15.00),  consists  of  nineteen  loose  maps  on 
manila  paper,  covering  the  period  from  A.D.  526  to 
1894.  Modern  maps  of  individual  European  coun- 
tries are  also  helpful,  and,  for  the  recent  period, 
maps  of  the  other  continents  are  necessary.  For 
special  subjects  and  battle-fields,  single  sheets  of 
the  various  government  surveys  will  be  found 

1  Physical  features  are  conveniently  brought  out,  in  exaggerated 
form,  by  the  relief  maps  prepared  by  Giuseppe  Roggero,  and  pub- 
lished by  G.  B.  Paravia  &  Co.,  Turin,  Rome,  and  Florence.  The 
set  includes  maps  of  Italy,  Spain,  France,  Scandinavia,  Germany, 
the  British  Isles,  and  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  varying  in  size  from 
8xio  to  10x12  inches;  the  price  of  each  map  is  2  lire,  or 
including  packing  and  postage  (but  not  the  duty,  when  imported 
by  an  individual),  about  50  cents. 


252  Maps  and  Atlases 

useful,  and  can  be  had  through  any  foreign  book- 
seller. 

The  best  small  atlas  of  European  history  is :  — 

F.  W.  PUTZGER,  Historischer  Schul-Atlas  zur  alien, 
mittlercn  und  neuen  Geschichte.  Twenty-second 
edition,  Bielefeld  and  Leipzig,  Velhagen  and  Klas- 
ing,  1897.  2  marks;  bound,  2  marks  70  pfennigs. 

It  contains  sixty-seven  large  and  seventy-one 
small  maps,  but  has  no  index  of  places.  Other 
small  atlases  are  the  following :  — 

C.  COLBECK,  The  Public  Schools  Historical  Atlas. 
Fourth  edition.  London  and  New  York,  Long- 
mans, 1894.  $1.50. 

One  hundred  and  one  maps  and  plans,  and  an  index 
of  places.  Begins  with  the  fourth  century  A.D.  ;  as  the 
maps  are  for  the  most  part  reproduced  from  the  Epochs 
of  Modern  History,  they  are  not  very  well  distributed 
over  the  period. 

KIEPERT  and  WOLF,  Historischer  Schul-Atlas  zur  alten, 
mittleren  und  neueren  Geschichte.  Seventh  edition. 
Berlin,  D.  Reimer,  1896.  Bound,  3  marks  60 
pfennigs.  Thirty-six  maps. 

ROBERT  HENLOPEN  LABBERTON,  Historical  Atlast  3800 
B.C.  to  1886  A.D.  Boston,  Silver,  Burdett,  &  Co., 
1886.  #1.25.  Sixty-four  pages  of  maps. 


Mediaeval  and  Modern        253 

The  school  library  should  also  possess  one  of 
the  following  excellent  historical  atlases,  each 
of  which  covers  ancient  as  well  as  mediaeval  and 
modern  history :  — 

GUSTAV   DROYSEN,   Allgemeiner  historischcr  Handatlas. 
Bielefeld  and  Leipzig,  Velhagen  and  Klasing,  1886. 
20  marks ;  bound,  25  marks. 
Eighty-eight  pages  of  maps,  with  descriptive  text. 

FRANZ  SCHRADER,  Atlas  de  Geographic  Historique.   Paris, 

Hachette,  1896.     Bound,  35  francs. 
Fifty-five  double-page  plates  and  a  large  number  of 
sketch-maps,  with  descriptive  text  and  an  index  of  places. 

Unfortunately,  the  only  English  atlas  of  the 
type  of  Schrader  and  Droysen,  the  Historical  Atlas 
of  Modern  Europe  now  appearing  at  the  Clarendon 
Press  under  the  editorship  of  Reginald  Lane  Poole 
(to  be  completed  in  thirty  parts  at  3^.  6d.  each),  is 
much  more  expensive  and  covers  only  the  mediaeval 
and  modern  periods.  Freeman's  Historical  Geog- 
raphy of  Europe  (one  volume  of  text  and  one  of 
maps,  London  and  New  York,  Longmans,  1881) 
is  now  out  of  print. 

Still  greater  detail  will  be  found  in  — 

SPRUNER-MENKE,  Handatlas  zur  Geschichte  des  Mittcl- 
alters  und  der  neuern  Zeit.  Gotha,  Perthes,  1880. 
In  parts,  85  marks  60  pfennigs.  Any  map  may  be 
had  separately  at  i  mark  20  pfennigs. 


254  Maps  and  Atlases 

3.    English  History 

The  study  of  English  history  requires  in  the 
first  place  large  wall  maps,  political  and  physical, 
of  the  British  Isles,  and  also  — 

SAMUEL  RAWSON  GARDINER,  School  Atlas  of  English  His- 
tory.    London   and   New  York,  Longmans,    1891, 


For  the  proper  comprehension  of  the  conti- 
nental and  imperial  aspects  of  English  history 
there  is  also  needed  much  of  the  equipment  neces- 
sary for  the  study  of  general  mediaeval  and  modern 
history.  This  is  the  case  particularly  as  regards 
wall  maps ;  smaller  maps  of  Europe  and  the 
colonies  are  largely  represented  in  Gardiner's 
admirable  Atlas. 

4.    American  History 

Information  concerning  the  most  serviceable 
maps  for  use  in  connection  with  classes  in  Ameri- 
can history  will  be  found  in  Channing  and  Hart's 
Guide  to  American  History,  §  21,  and  in  the  List 
of  tJie  Publications  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  which  will  be  furnished  on  application  to 
the  Director  of  that  Survey,  Washington,  D.C. 
Schools  should  always  possess  a  good  general 


English  and  American        255 

map  of  North  America,  and  a  large  map  of  the 
United  States,  such  as  that  published  by  the 
United  States  Land  Office  (price,  unmounted, 
$1.25).  Also  useful  is  Albert  Bushnell  Hart's 
Epoch  Maps  Illustrating  American  History  (New 
York,  Longmans,  1891.  50  cents.  Reprinted  from 
the  Epochs  of  American  History).  The  United 
States  Geological  Survey  publishes  for  its  own  use 
a  three-sheet,  and  a  reduced  one-sheet,  physical 
map  of  the  United  States,  giving  only  rivers,  lakes, 
and  contours,  without  political  boundaries  or  names. 
This  map  may  sometimes  be  obtained  by  special 
arrangement  with  the  Survey,  and  it  is  almost 
indispensable,  since  the  modern  map  with  its  state 
boundaries  gives  a  wrong  historical  impression. 
These  maps  may  best  be  supplemented  by  the 
various  physiographic  maps  issued  by  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey,  and  especially  by  the 
detailed  topographic  maps  of  small  areas  sold  in 
sheets  at  5  cents  each  (and  in  any  combination 
of  one  hundred  sheets  at  $2.00  per  hundred ;  a 
list  may  be  obtained  on  application),  and  by  sets 
of  historical  maps  which  the  teacher  may  prepare 
on  outlines,  such  as  those  mentioned  in  the  note  on 
page  248.  Townsend  MacCoun  also  has  a  series 
of  Historical  Charts  of  the  United  States  (Boston, 
Silver,  Burdett,  &  Co.,  $15.00). 


Index 


A  DAMS,  C.  K.,  Manual  of  His- 

•*^     torical  Literature,  240. 

Albums  Historiques,  206. 

Alexander,  conquests,  56. 

Altamira,  Raphael,  La  Ensenanza 
de  la  Historia,  199,  245. 

America,  as  a  world  power,  36. 

American  Historical  Association, 
discussions  of  history,  9;  dis- 
cussion of  report,  92;  investiga- 
tion of  entrance  requirements, 
119;  paper  on  German  schools, 

173; 

American  Historical  Review, 
240. 

American  History,  time  allow- 
ance, 28;  discussion,  36,  38; 
combination  with  English,  43; 
in  grammar  schools,  38;  rela- 
tions with  England,  67;  treat- 
ment of,  74-81;  colonial,  74; 
industrial,  74;  military,  75; 
institutional,  75;  social  and 
industrial,  75 ;  economic,  76 ; 
movement,  79;  through  inten- 
sive study,  in,  112;  relation 
with  European,  170;  in  eighth 
grade,  170;  not  to  be  exclu- 
sive, 194;  maps  and  atlases, 
254. 


American  schools,  conditions  in, 
12,  137-157;  study  of  history, 
158,  172;  information,  how 
obtained,  137;  choice  of  sub- 
jects, 139;  order  of  subjects, 
140;  separate  college  course, 
142;  time  given,  142;  text- 
books, 143;  collateral  reading, 
144;  written  work,  145;  use 
of  sources,  146;  teachers,  147; 
college  requirements,  148; 
summary,  149;  copy  of  circu- 
lar, 150;  examples  of  courses, 
153-157;  history  below  sec- 
ondary schools,  158-172;  fun- 
damentals in,  165. 

Ancient  History,  time  allowance, 
28;  as  a  field,  34,  39-41;  im- 
portance, 35,  197;  social,  40; 
appreciation  of,  48;  Roman 
Empire  neglected,  54;  rela- 
tions of  Greece  and  Rome,  56; 
study  of  Orient,  54,  56;  rela- 
tions with  classics,  53,  127; 
Greek  history,  56;  Roman  his- 
tory, 57;  Livy,  a  good  repub- 
lican, 57;  Augustus,  48,  57; 
importance,  126;  in  American 
schools,  139,  140,  141;  in  fifth 
grade,  169;  in  German  schools, 


257 


258 


Index 


1 80,  181;  in  French  schools, 
203;  in  English  schools,  214, 
218;  maps  and  atlases,  249, 
250. 

Andrews,  Alice,  Teaching  Mod- 
ern History,  246;  Work  and 
Play  in  Girls'  Schools,  246. 

Anglo-Saxon  Period,  less  impor- 
tant, 70. 

Associations  of  Colleges  and  Pre- 
paratory Schools,  5;  proceed- 
ings, 239. 

Assyria,  history  of,  56. 

Athens,  see  Ancient  History. 

Atlases,  bibliography  of,  248-255. 
—  See  also  Geography. 

DALE,  history  in,  II. 

•^  Barnes,  Mary  S.,  Studies  in 
Historical  Method,  242;  Teach- 
ing of  Local  History,  243. 

Barnett,  P.  A.,  Teaching  and 
Organization,  247. 

Bernheim,  Ernst,  Lehrbuch  der 
historischen  methode,  245. 

Bibliography,  of  the  Teaching 
of  history,  239-247;  of  geo- 
graphical works,  248-255. 

Biography,  in  fourth  grade,  168, 
169. 

Books,  use  of,  25,  89,  91,  93. — 
See  also  Bibliography,  Read- 
ing, Sources,  Written  Work. 

Botany,  see  Science. 

Browning,  Oscar,  Teaching  of 
History  in  Schools,  247. 

Bryce,  James,  Teaching  of  Civic 
Duty,  244. 


Buildings,  as  sources,  108. 

Bureau  of  Education,  see  Com- 
mission of  Education. 

Burke,  Edmund,  masterpiece,  89, 
90. 

CALVIN,  John,  place  in  history, 

^     61. 

Canada,  history  in  secondary 
schools,  231-238;  difficulties, 
231  ;  in  universities,  232  ; 
educational  system,  232;  loy- 
alists, 233  ;  history  included, 
233;  programme,  234;  train- 
ing of  teachers,  234-236;  in- 
completeness of  programme, 
236;  time  allowance  too  small, 
236;  text-books  inferior,  237; 
improvement,  238. 

Channing,  Edward,  Guide  to  the 
Study  of  American  History, 
239-241,  254;  Students'  His- 
tory of  the  United  States,  245. 

Charles,  B.  F.,  History  Teaching 
in  Schools,  247. 

Chronological  method  in  Ameri- 
can schools,  140;  in  French 
schools,  203. 

Church,  history  of,  35;  central 
figure,  60,  6 1 ;  history,  in  Ger- 
man schools,  1 89 ;  relation  with 
Canadian  schools,  232,  233. 

Circles,  in  German  instruction, 
180-185. 

Circular  of  information,  137; 
copy  of,  150;  sent  out  to 
schools,  150-153;  sent  by 
Miss  Salmon,  158. 


Index 


259 


Citizenship,  through  history,  17- 
21,  122;  study  of  European 
history,  36 ;  religion  in  the 
common  schools,  165.  —  See 
also  Patriotism. 

Civil  Government,  preparation 
for  citizenship,  18-21 ;  as  a 
field,  35;  English  institutions, 
68-70;  treatment,  81-85;  im- 
portance, 8 1 ;  topics,  82,  83; 
practical,  83;  text-books,  84; 
intensive  study,  1 1 2 ;  neglected 
in  English  schools,  224.  —  See 
also  United  States. 

Classics,  correlation  with  history, 
30,  53,  54;  compared  with 
history,  89,  125;  in  Germany, 
185,  189.  —  See  also  Ancient 
History. 

Colbeck,  C.,  Public  Schools  His- 
torical Atlas,  252. 

Colleges,  separate  preparation 
for,  in  history,  142;  actual 
requirements  in  history,  148; 
history  in  Canada,  232.  —  See 
also  Entrance  Requirements. 

Colleges,  in  France,  201. 

Colonies,  development  of  Eng- 
lish, 7  2 ;  history,  less  important, 
74.  —  See  also  America,  United 
States. 

Commissioner  of  Education,  sta- 
tistics of  historical  pupils,  I. 

Committee  of  Seven,  how  ap- 
pointed, v,  119;  methods  of 
investigation,  1-15;  investiga- 
tion by  circular,  137;  replies, 
138;  analysis  of  replies,  139- 


150;  copy  of  circular,  150 
153;  examples  of  courses,  153- 
157;  knowledge  of  schools, 
149,  150;  investigations  in 
Germany,  173;  investigations 
in  France,  199;  investigations 
in  England,  210. 

Committee  of  Ten,  on  college 
courses,  142;  Report  on  Sec- 
ondary School  Studies,  242. 
—  See  also  Madison  Confer- 
ence. 

Concentric  system,  discussed, 
604;  in  Germany,  180-185. 

Constitution,  see  Civil  Govern- 
ment. 

Continuity,   of    historical   study, 

27-33- 

Cookson,  Christopher,  Essays  on 
Secondary  Education,  247. 

Correlation  of  history,  in  Ger- 
many, 10,  n,  178;  with  clas- 
sics, 30;  with  modern  lan- 
guages, 30;  with  literature, 
1 66.  —  See  also  Classics,  Lan- 
guages. 

Course  of  study,  methods  pro- 
posed, 27;  time  allowance,  27; 
four  blocks,  34-43;  general 
history,  44-52;  specific  treat- 
ment, 53—85;  four  years,  134; 
three  years,  134;  examples  of 
actual,  153-157;  variety  of, 
159;  for  lower  schools,  168, 
170;  German,  170,  175,  180; 
by  legislatures,  177;  French, 
201-206;  English,  213,  219- 
233;  Canadian,  234,  236. 


260 


Index 


Crusaders,  study  of,  73. 
Curriculum,  see  Courses  of  Study. 

nECLARATION  of  Indepen- 
dence,  relations  with  Eng- 
land, 67. 

Discipline  through  history,  16- 
26,  29,  47 ;  in  German  schools, 
178. 

Documents,  as  sources,  105. 

Droysen,  J.  G.,  Outline  of  the 
Principles  of  History,  242; 
Allgemeiner  historischer  Hand- 
atlas,  253. 

EDUCATION,  purpose  of,  16- 

26  ;  in  lower  schools,  1 60  ; 
in  Germany,  177  ;  in  France, 
200;  in  England,  218;  in 
Canada,  230. 

Educational  Review,  articles  on 
history,  239,  243,  244. 

Edward  I.,  allusion  to,  36. 

Egypt,  history  of,  56. 

England,  historical  methods  in, 
9,  12,  14  ;  history  teaching, 
163;  chaotic  history  teaching, 
210,  220;  private  control,  210; 
public  schools,  21 1  ;  class- 
rooms not  visited,  212;  classic 
side,  212;  modern  side,  213; 
university  examinations,  213 ; 
programme,  214,  219-225  ; 
scholarships,  215,  216  ;  pass 
and  honor  examinations,  217  ; 
field  of  history  covered,  217  ; 
text-books,  218;  succession  of 


courses,  220,  221  ;  scripture 
history,  221  ;  European  his- 
tory, 221,  222  ;  verse  equiva- 
lent, 223;  English  history,  223; 
civil  government  included, 
224  ;  time  allowance,  225  ; 
teachers  little  trained,  226  ; 
methods,  227,  229;  text-books, 
227  ;  recitations,  227  ;  labora- 
tory method,  228 ;  sources 
rare,  229  ;  Bryce's  opinion, 
229;  public  impression,  230. 

English,  study  of,  compared  with 
history,  33,  39. 

English  history,  time  allowance, 
28 ;  as  a  field,  35,  36 ;  com- 
bination with  European,  43 ; 
combination  with  American, 
43 ;  as  a  centre  of  modern 
history,  65,  66,  69  ;  impor- 
tance, 67 ;  relation  to  the 
United  States,  67 ;  institutions, 
68  ;  treatment,  68  ;  develop- 
ment, 69 ;  Anglo-Saxon  less 
important,  70 ;  local  institu- 
tions, 70 ;  northern  history, 
71;  imperial  development,  72; 
empire,  72 ;  relations  with 
Europe,  73  ;  feudalism,  73  ; 
economic  and  social,  80 ; 
through  intensive  study,  in, 
112  ;  in  lower  schools,  163  ; 
in  seventh  grade,  170;  when 
beginning,  194 ;  in  English 
schools,  211,  213,  218;  ex- 
amination subject  in  England, 
214,  215;  in  England,  223; 
maps  and  atlases,  254. 


Index 


261 


Entrance  requirements  to  col- 
lege, difficulty,  119;  purpose 
of  this  report,  119;  for  college 
pupils,  1 20  ;  simplification, 
121  ;  importance,  122 ;  unit, 
122;  with  options,  123  ;  with 
partial  options,  1 23 ;  with  pre- 
scribed studies,  123 ;  with 
fixed  courses,  124;  preparation 
for  classical  course,  125,  126; 
for  Latin  course,  127  ;  for 
scientific  course,  127  ;  for 
English  course,  128 ;  general 
recommendations,  128;  argu- 
ment for  a  substantial  course, 
129;  examinations,  130-134; 
separate  preparatory  college 
course,  142,  152,  193;  New 
York  conference  report,  148 ; 
queries  on,  153;  warped  by 
classics,  196;  in  England,  213, 
215. 

Epochs,  in  modern  history,  62; 
episodic  method,  62. 

Ethical  value  of  history,  25. 

Europe,  historical  methods  in, 
9-15;  maps  of,  248-254. 

European  history,  combination 
with  English,  43;  in  Ameri- 
can schools,  139,  141;  neg- 
lect in  lower  schools,  163;  in 
sixth  grade,  170;  relation  with 
American,  170,  171;  in  Ger- 
man schools,  182;  in  English 
schools,  220,  222-224.  —  See 
also  Mediaeval,  Modern. 

Examinations,  for  entrance  to 
college,  130,  131;  difficulties, 


130;  remedy,  131;  test  of 
abilities,  132;  command  of 
extracts,  133;  additional  writ- 
ten work,  133;  oral  confer- 
ences, 134;  courses  in  history 
recommended  by  the  commit- 
tee, 134-136. 

FEDERATION,  subject  for  in- 
tensive study,  112. 

Feudalism,  English,  73. 

Field  of  history,  see  Courses. 

Foreign  schools,  see  Canada, 
England,  France,  Germany. 

Four  years'  course,  34-43. 

Fox,  George  L.,  investigations  in 
England,  9 ;  History  in  English 
Secondary  Schools,  210-230. 

France,  historical  methods  in,  9, 
12,  14;  in  mediaeval  and  mod- 
ern history,  62,  64;  patriotism 
through  history,  160;  superior 
history  teaching,  163;  report 
on  German  schools,  174;  rela- 
tion of  history  to  classics,  199; 
patriotism,  200;  Lycees,  201; 
Colleges,  201 ;  time  allowance, 
202 ;  programme,  203;  chron- 
ological treatment,  204;  com- 
parison with  German  circles, 
204;  routine  spirit,  205;  dic- 
tation system,  205,  206;  illus- 
trations, 206;  collateral  read- 
ing, 206;  appointment  of 
teachers,  207;  training  of 
teachers,  207;  text-books,  208; 
improvements,  209. 

Freeman,    E.    A.,    Methods    of 


262 


Index 


Historical  Study,  242;  Histori- 
cal Geography  of  Europe,  253. 
French  Revolution,  appreciation 
of,  48.  —  See  also  France. 

PARDINER,  s.  R.,  School  At- 

^     las  of  English  History,  254. 

Garlick,  A.  H.,  New  Manual  of 
Method,  247. 

General  history,  discussion  of,  44- 
52;  in  American  schools,  1 39- 
141 ;  query  on,  152.  —  See  also 
Courses. 

Geography,  use  of,  95,  96;  in 
German  schools,  190;  bibli- 
ography of  maps  and  atlases, 
248-255. 

Germany,  historical  methods  in, 
9-12,  14;  patriotism  through 
history,  161 ;  superior  teaching, 
163;  information  on  schools, 
173;  programmes,  174;  early 
reports  on,  174;  Gymnasia,  1 75 ; 
Real-gymnasia,  175;  Ober- 
real-schulen,  175;  symmetric 
education,  175;  influence  of 
Herbart,  176;  expert  influ- 
ence, 177;  German  boy,  177; 
no  personal  opinions,  178; 
correlation  in,  179;  object  of 
history,  179;  subject  matter, 
1 80;  three  concentric  circles, 
l8l;  ancient  history,  181;  me- 
diaeval history,  182;  modern 
history,  182;  second  circle, 
182;  social  and  economic  his- 
tory, 183;  patriotism,  184; 
results,  185;  psychological 


treatment,  187;  time  allow- 
ance, 1 88;  correlation,  189; 
illustrations,  190;  storytelling, 
190;  text-book,  190;  assimila- 
tion, 191 ;  centralization,  192; 
distinctive  features,  192;  les- 
sons for  Americans,  193; 
breadth  of  treatment,  194; 
preparation  for  universities, 
196;  double  purpose,  197. 

Ginn,  Classical  Atlas,  250. 

Government,  see  Civil  Govern- 
ment. 

Grades,  history  in,  158-172. 

Grammar  School,  history  in,  38, 
158-172. 

Greece,  see  Ancient  History. 

Greek,  correlation  with  history, 

31.  39.  40. 

Gymnasia,  Germany,  history  in, 
10,  173-198. 

UAILEYBURY  College,  an 
English  public  school,  218, 
219. 

Hall,  G.  S.,  Methods  of  Teaching 
History,  243. 

Hart,  Albert  Bushnell,  Guide  to 
American  History,  239-241, 
254;  How  to  Teach  History, 
244;  Studies  in  American 
Education,  244;  Epoch  Maps 
illustrating  American  History, 
255 ;  Epochs  of  American  His- 
tory, 255. 

Haskins,  Charles  H.,  investiga- 
tion in  France,  9  ;  History  in 
French  Lycees,  199-209. 


Index 


263 


Herbart,  influence  in  Germany, 
176. 

High  School,  see  American 
Schools,  Courses. 

Hinsdale,  B.  A.,  How  to  Study 
and  Teach  History,  239-241. 

Historical-mindedness,  habit  of, 
20. 

Holidays,  illustrations  for  history, 
165. 

Huling,  R.  G.,  History  in  Sec- 
ondary Education,  244. 

ILLUSTRATIONS,  as  sources, 

*•  108;  in  German  schools,  190; 
in  French  schools,  206. 

Industrial  history,  discussion,  74- 
81. 

Information  through  history,  24, 
29,  49,  87,  88. 

Institutional  history,  time  allow- 
ance, 28. 

Intensive  study,  in,  112. 

Investigation,  compared  with 
laboratory  work,  23;  scientific 
habit,  23.  —  See  also  Sources. 

Ireland,  history  neglected,  71. 

JAGER,  Oskar,   on  history  in 
German   schools,  183  ;    Di- 
daktik     und     methodik     des 
Geschichtsunterrichts,  246. 
Judgment,  training  through  his- 
tory, 21-24. 

T7IEPERT,    H.,     Wandkarten 
•^     zur  alien   Geschichte,   249; 
Atlas  Antiquus,  250. 


Kiepert  and  Wolf,  Historischer 
Schul-Atlas,  252. 

T  ABBERTON,  R.  H.,  ffistori- 

*•'     cal  Atlas,  252. 

Laboratory  work,  see  Sources. 

Lange,  Bilder  zur  Geschichte, 
108. 

Langlois,  C.  V.,  Manuel  de  Bib- 
liographie  Historique,  246. 

Langlois,  C.  V.,  and  Seignobos, 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
History,  241,  299. 

Languages,  compared  with  his- 
tory, 33,  89. 

Lantern  slides,  as  sources,  109; 
as  historical  illustrations,  248. 

Latin,  correlation  with  history, 
31,  39,  40 ;  relation  with 
history,  127,  128.  —  See  also 
Ancient  History. 

Lavisse,  Ernest,  A  frofos  de  nos 
Ecoles,  246. 

Lectures,  in  school,  206. 

Liberty,  see  Civil  Government. 

Library,  for  historical  work,  25; 
for  school  work,  07-100;  ac- 
cessibility, 99;  intelligent  use, 
99;  proper  selection,  99;  in 
English  schools,  228. 

Livy,  ghost  of,  54,  57. 

Longmans,  Classical  Atlas,  250. 

Luther,  place  in  history,  61. 

Lycees,  French,  199-209. — See 
also  France. 

V |  AC  COUN,     T.,     Historical 
Geography  Charts  of  Europe, 


264 


Index 


250,  251 ;  Historical  Charts  of 

the  United  States,  255. 
Macdonald,    J.    W.,    Civics    by 

the     Parliamentary     Method, 

244. 
Mace,  W.  H.,  Method  in  History, 

243- 

Madison  Conference,  work  of, 
2;  suggestions  by,  7;  results 
of,  86,  87;  quotation  from, 
91;  on  intensive  study,  III, 
112;  Report  on  History,  242. 

Maps,  see  Geography. 

Mathematics,  compared  with  his- 
tory, 88. 

Mediaeval  and  Modern  European 
history,  time  allowance,  28 ;  as 
a  field,  34,  35 ;  relation  to  An- 
cient, 58;  rise  of  Christianity, 
58;  rise  of  Mohammedanism, 
58;  treatment,  59-66;  period 
covered,  59;  in  secondary 
schools,  60 ;  characteristic  fea- 
tures, 6 1 ;  termination,  61 ;  in 
American  schools,  140;  in  sixth 
grade,  170;  in  German  schools, 
181,  182,  186;  in  French 
schools,  203 ;  maps  and  atlases, 
250,  253. 

Memorizing  in  history,  45. 

Methods,  general  uniformity  of, 
7;  discussion  of,  86-100; 
means  of,  87-89;  in  German 
schools,  190-193;  bibliogra- 
phy of,  239-247.  —  See  also 
Courses,  Reading,  Recitations, 
Text-books,  Sources,  Written 
Work. 


Middle  Ages,  see  Mediaeval. 

Middle  States,  study  of  history 
in,  140,  141,  143,  145-147. 

Military  history,  discussion,  75. 

Modern  history,  beginnings  of, 
6 1 ;  lack  of  concentration,  62; 
studied  through  France,  62, 64 ; 
recent,  63;  studied  through 
England,  65;  in  German 
schools,  182;  in  French 
schools,  203;  maps  and  at- 
lases, 250,  253. 

Modern  languages,  correlation 
with  history,  30. 

Myths,  in  German  instruction, 
1 80. 

MATIONAL  Educational  As- 
sociation, investigation  of 
entrance  requirements,  6,  119, 
121;  Proceedings,  239. 

New  England,  study  of  history 
in,  140-143,  146,  148,  149; 
a  good  course,  153-155. 

New  England  Association  of  Col- 
leges and  Preparatory  Schools, 
Report  on  Entrance  Require- 
ments, 244. 

New  England  History  Teachers' 
Association,  6,  239. 

New  York  Conference,  Report 
on  Entrance  Requirements, 
148. 

Note  books,  use  of,  94;  in  New 
York  report,  148;  criticism  of, 
149. 

Novels,  illustrations  of  history, 
41. 


Index 


265 


QPTIONS,    in     entrance    re- 

quirements,  123. 
Orient,   history  of,   importance, 

54;   survey  of,  55;  in  German 

schools,  1 8 1,  189;  in  France, 

203. 

Order  of  courses,  see  Courses. 
Outline  maps,  use  of,  248. 
Oxford,  relations  with    English 

schools,  213,  214,  215. 

DARMENTIER,  Albums  m*- 

toriques,  1 08. 

Patriotism,  as  an  object  of  his- 
tory, 1 60  ;  in  German  schools, 

182.  —  See    also    Citizenship, 

Civil  Government. 
Persia,  history  of,  50. 
Poole,  R.  L.,  Historical  Atlas  of 

Modern  Europe,  253. 
Primary  schools,  history  in,  158- 

172. 

Programmes,  see  Course  of  Study. 
Prussia,  see  Germany. 
Psychology   of   historical   study, 

17;    in    German    instruction, 

187. 
Public  schools,  in  England,  211; 

in    America,     see     American 

Schools. 
Putzger,    F.     W.,     Historischer 

Schul- Atlas,  252. 

DEADING,  collateral,  92;    in 

America,  144;  in  New  York 

report,   148;    query  on,  152; 

in   French   schools,    206 ;     in 

English  schools,  206. 


Recitations,  discussions  of,  86- 
98  ;  written,  94  ;  in  German 
schools,  190;  in  French  schools, 
205;  in  English  schools,  227. 

Reformation,  history  of,  35. 

Relief  maps,  248,  251. 

Religion,  in  German  schools, 
189. 

Renaissance,  history  of,  35. 

Revolution,  American,  relations 
with  England,  67;  importance, 
74,  75  ;  subject  for  intensive 
study,  112;  study  of  patriot- 
ism, 161 ;  study  of,  165. 

Rome,  see  Ancient  History. 

Russell,  J.  E.,  History  and  Geog- 
raphy in  the  Higher  Schools 
of  Germany,  245  ;  German 
Higher  Schools,  245. 

Russia,  history  in,  14. 

CALMON,  Lucy,  investigations 

^  in  Germany,  9;  On  the  Study 
of  History  below  the  Secondary 
Schools,  158-172;  History  in 
the  German  Gymnasia,  173- 
198  ;  Teaching  of  History, 
245  ;  Woman  and  the  Higher 
Education,  245. 

Saxony,  see  Germany. 

Scholarships,  English,  in  history, 
215. 

Schrader,  F.,  Atlas  de  Geographie 
Historique,  253. 

Science,  comparison  with  history, 
1 6,  20,  22,  23,  24,  29,  30,  32, 

33.  39.  49,  5°.  89,  97»   103, 
226. 


266 


Index 


Scotland,  history  of.neglected.yi. 

Secondary  Schools,  see  Ameri- 
can Schools,  Canada,  England, 
France,  Germany. 

Seemann,  Kunsthistorische  Bil- 
derbogen,  108. 

Sequence  of  courses,  34-43;  im- 
portance of,  52. 

Smith,  A.  L.,  Teaching  of  Mod- 
ern History,  247. 

Social  history,  discussion,  74- 
8 1 ;  study  of,  195. 

Somervell,  R.,  Modern  History, 
247. 

Sources,  caution,  45,  46;  source, 
method  discussed,  45,  51,  100, 
IOI;  text-book  necessary,  102; 
investigation  disclaimed,  102; 
comparison  with  science,  103; 
personal  interest,  103;  vitaliz- 
ing effect,  104  ;  controversies 
avoided,  104;  documents  min- 
imized, 105;  travels  and  me- 
moirs, 105;  literary  value,  106; 
use  of  topics,  1 07;  buildings  and 
illustrations,  108;  subject  sum- 
marized, 109;  in  American 
schools,  146;  query  on,  152; 
not  used  in  French  schools, 
206;  in  English  schools,  229. 

Sparta,  see  Ancient  History. 

Spence,  C.  H.,  Teaching  of  Mod- 
ern History,  247. 

Spruner-Bretschneider,  Histo- 
riicher  Wandatlas,  251. 

Spruner-Mencke,  Handatlas  zur 
Geschichte  des  Mittelalters  und 
der  neueren  Zeit,  253. 


Spruner-Sieglin,  Atlas-Antiquus, 

250. 
States,  history  of,  in  lower  schools, 

164;  in  grammar  grades,  167; 

history  courses,   159;    making 

of  curricula,    161,    162,    176, 

177. 
Stories,  in  lower  schools,  166;  in 

third  grade,  168;    in  German 

schools,  190. 
Stubbs,  Bishop,  The  Roots  of  the 

Present,  84. 

Subjects,  see  Courses  of  Study. 
Switzerland,   historical    methods 

in,  9,  12;    history  in  schools, 

184. 

TEACHERS,  discipline  of  his- 
tory,  I ;  value  of  training, 
7;  evidences  of  success,  8; 
trained  foreign,  14;  necessity 
for  training,  113,  147;  diffi- 
culty of  history,  114;  broad 
knowledge,  115;  ability  to 
handle  books,  115;  sympathy, 
1 1 6;  historical-mindedness, 
116;  method  of  training,  117; 
queries  on  training,  153;  in 
German  schools,  207;  in 
French  schools,  207;  in  Ca- 
nadian schools,  234. 

Text-books,  proper  use  of,  90- 
92;  more  than  one,  91;  with 
sources,  102;  slavish  use,  167; 
use  in  America,  143;  in  New 
York  Report,  148;  query  on, 
152;  in  lower  schools,  1 66; 
in  German  schools,  191;  in 


Index 


267 


French  schools,  206,  208;  in 
English  schools,  227;  in  Cana- 
dian schools,  237. 

Thompson,  Anna  B.,  Suggestions 
to  Teachers,  245. 

Thwaites,  R.  G.,  Study  of  Local 
History,  243. 

Time  allowance,  abroad,  14; 
defence  of  Committee's,  42; 
possible  deviations,  43;  in 
America,  142;  in  New  York 
Report,  148;  query  on,  152; 
in  German  schools,  188,  189; 
in  France,  202,  203;  in  Eng- 
lish schools,  225,  226;  in  Cana- 
dian schools,  234,  236. 

Topics,  from  sources,  107;  in 
French  schools,  205. —  See  also 
Sources,  Written  Work. 

Training,  through  History,  49.  — 
See  also  Teachers. 

Training  of  teachers,  in  Canadian 
schools,  234. 

Travels,  as  sources,  105. 

T  TNITED  States,  relations  with 
England,  67;  history  in 
lower  schools,  162;  in  gram- 
mar grades,  166,  167.  —  See 
also  American  History. 

United  States  Geological  Survey, 
List  of  Publications,  254. 


United  States  Land  Office,  map 

of,  255. 
University,  see  Colleges. 

"yALUE,    of   historical    study, 
V      16-26. 

WEBSTER,  Daniel,  master- 
piece,  89,  90. 

Wales,  history  neglected,  71. 

Wells,  J.,  Teaching  of  History  in 
Schools,  247. 

West,  study  of  history  in,  140, 
141,  143,  146,  147,  149;  a 
good  western  programme,  153, 
156. 

Weyer,  J.  I.,  Bibliography  of  the 
Study  and  Teaching  of  His- 
tory, 239. 

Wigs,     historical      significance, 

79- 

Withers,  H.  L.,  Ancient  History, 
247. 

Written  work,  proper  use,  93-95 ; 
for  young  pupils,  93;  advan- 
tages, 93;  written  recitations, 
94;  note  books,  94;  in  Ameri- 
can schools,  145 ;  in  New  York 
Report,  148;  query  on,  152. 

Wrong,  G.  M.,  History  in  Cana- 
dian Secondary  Schools,  231- 
238. 


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T 


HE  following  pages  contain  advertisements  of  a  few 
of  the  Macmillan  books  on  kindred  subjects. 


•«  Decidedly  the  best  one-voiume  American  History  yex 
published. "  —  A  merican  Historical  Reviiw, 

STUDENTS'     HISTORY    OF     THE 
UNITED    STATES. 

By  EDWARD  CHANNING, 
Professor  of  History  in  Harvard  University, 

With  Suggestions  to  Teachers 

By  AHWA  BOYWTON  THOMPSON,  Thayer  Academy,  So*t* 
Braintree,  Mass, 

8vo.   Half  Leather.    Price,  $1.4O 


inPORTANT  FEATURES.  —  Reproductions  of  Original  Documents. 
Colored  Maps;  Excellent  Illustrations;  Accurate  Copies  of  Well-known 
Portraits:  Lists  of  Standard  Works  for  Small  Library,  Good  Library, 
Very  Good  Library;  Suggestions  to  Teachers;  a  Perspective  of  United 
States  History;  List  of  Books  for  Consultation  at  the  Beginning  of  Each 
Chapter;  Suggestive  Questions  and  Topics  at  the  Close  of  Each  Chapter; 
Table  of  Important  Dates;  Marginal  Notes  throughout. 

Professor  A.  A.  Freeman,  reviewing  this  work  in  The  American 
Historical  Review,  says:  "Decidedly  the  best  one-volume  American  his- 
tory yet  published.  ...  In  the  preface  the  author  has  explained  that  his 
purpose  in  the  publication  of  this  work  is  to  provide  a  text-book  suited  to  the 
needs  of  the  senior  class  in  high  schools  and  academies.  He  believes  that 
'  the  serious  study  of  American  History  more  fitly  follows  than  precedes 
other  countries  and  belongs  to  the  maturer  years  of  school  life.'  The  author 
assumes  a  considerable  knowledge  of  American  history  on  the  part  of  pupils 
from  the  use  of  more  elementary  text-books  in  the  lower  grades.  He  accord- 
ingly omits  all  the  stock  stories  and  anecdotes  which  form  so  large  a  part  of 
our  elementary  text-books.  ...  It  is  full  of  suggestions  for  both  teachers 
and  pupils.  Miss  Anna  Boynton  Thompson,  of  Thayer  Academy,  has 
written  a  chapter  entitled  '  Suggestions  to  Teachers,'  in  which  she  has 
described  her  own  method  of  teaching.  These  suggestions  will  be  very 
helpful  to  the  teacher  if  he  accepts  them  as  '  suggestions '  and  not  as  rules. 
.  .  .  They  should  prove  of  peculiar  value  in  preparing  pupils  for  the  new 
requirements  for  entrance  to  college.  Especially  valuable  are  the  marginal 
references  on  every  page  to  standard  works  which  contain  a  fuller  account 
of  each  topic.  Each  chapter  is  headed  by  a  list  of  books,  special  accounts, 
sources  and  bibliography,  maps  and  illustrative  material.  In  the  last  are 
found  the  names  of  titles  of  books  of  American  literature.  Everything  is 
done  to  stimulate  and  aid  a  more  thorough  investigation  by  the  student. 
The  introduction  is  a  study  of  the  land  and  its  resources  and  shows  the 
influence  of  geographical  conditions  in  the  development  of  the  country.  .  .  . 
The  author  displays  a  judicial  and  impartial  spirit  in  relation  to  all  contro- 
verted questions.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  consideration  of  such 
topics  as  the  administration  of  Andros  in  Massachusetts,  the  persecution  of 
the  Quakers  at  Boston,  the  effect  of  the  English  navigation  laws,  the  char- 
acter and  treatment  of  the  Loyalists,  and  the  execution  of  Andrei  .  .  .  There 
is  a  gratifying  absence  of  cheap  illustrations.  The  volume  contains  many 
excellent  portraits.  The  period  since  1789  is  treated  by  topics.  The  old 
arbitrary  division  by  administrations  is  properly  abandoned  and  is  replaced 
by  the  following  divisions:  Federalist  Supremacy,  1789-1800;  Jeffersonian 
Republicans,  1801-1812;  War  and  Peace,  1812-1829;  The  National  Democ- 
racy, 1829-1844;  Slavery  in  the  Territories,  1844-1859;  Secession,  1860- 
1861:  The  Civil  War.  1861-1865;  National  Development,  1865-1897." 

1 


COMMENTS. 

J.  M.  Greenwood,  Supt.  of  Schools,  Kansas  City,  Mo.  ;  "  I  nave 
finished  reading  Channing's  Students'  History,  and  I  closed  it  with  the 
conviction  that  it  is  the  best  single-volume  history  of  the  Country  that  has  yet 
been  printed." 

Frederic  A.  Voft,  Principal  Central  High  School,  Buffalo,  N.Y.: 
"  It  is  a  relief  to  see  a  history  in  which  the  military  achievements  give  some 
space  to  the  victories  of  peace  and  the  growth  of  constitutional  liberty. 
Mere  incidents  have  been  weeded  out,  and  the  essential  whole  has  been 
preserved  in  a  continuous  story.  There  is  a  breadth  of  view  and  loftiness  o{ 
exposition  which  is  scientific  and  much  more  profitable  than  a  mere  string 
of  dates  and  events.  The  schemes  for  study,  the  outlines  for  reading,  and 
the  suggestions  to  teachers  ought  to  make  the  book  very  helpful." 

R.  H.  Bowles,  Phillips  Exeter  Academy,  Exeter,  N.H,  :  "After 
examining  the  book  carefully,  I  feel  convinced  that  it  is  the  best  work  of 
the  kind  that  has  ever  been  done,  or  perhaps  it  would  be  fairer  to 
Mr.  Channing  to  say  that  it  is  the  only  thing  of  the  kind  that  has  been 
done." 

Miss  Mabel  Hill,  State  Normal  School,  Lowell,  Mass.  :  "  In  the 
publication  of  Professor  Edward  Channing's  Students'  History  of  the  United 
States  we  have  received  a  text-book  of  the  first  importance.  Its  spirited 
purpose,  together  with  its  philosophical  point  of  view,  sets  it  apart  as 
peculiarly  adapted  for  High  School  work,  although  its  simple,  strong  style 
gives  it  a  place  in  the  school-rooms  of  the  grammar  grades  as  a  reference 
reading  book." 

Wallace  E.  Mason,  Principal  of  High  School,  Leominster,  Mass,  t 
"  In  regard  to  the  History  by  Channing,  I  want  to  say  that  it  is  the  finest  in 
plan  and  execution  that  1  have  ever  seen." 

Arthur  N.  Burke,  Principal  of  Monson  Academy,  Monson,  Mass.! 
"  Channing's  Students'  History  of  the  United  States  is  certainly  the  best 
thing  of  its  kind  I  have  ever  seen." 

A.  C.  Teaton,  Westbrook  Seminary,  Deer  ing.  Me.  :  "  I  am  delighted 
with  it,  for  it  is  just  such  a  book  as  I  have  been  searching  for." 

Charles  H.  Keyes,  Principal  of  High  School,  Holyoke,  Mass.  :  "  We 
have  at  last  a  text  suited  for  High  School  use,  and  one  that  will  help  put  the 
subject  into  the  important  place  it  ought  to  occupy  in  the  curriculum  of  the 
secondary  school.  It  is  manifestly  the  work  of  one  who  is  both  an 
historian  and  a  teacher,  and  it  ought  to  meet  with  unprecedented  success." 

MiSS  Susan  OsgOOd,  High  School,  Bingliampton,  N.Y.:  "I  have 
examined  it  with  care,  and  let  me  assure  you,  with  ever  increasing  delight. 
It  seems  to  me  by  far  the  strongest  and  in  every  way  the  best  work  of  its 
kind  that  has  yet  appeared,  and  is  exactly  suited  to  our  needs." 

Thomas  M.  Cann.  School  of  the  Lackawaniia,  Scranton,  Pa.  :  "  I 
am  much  pleased  with  the  arrangement  of  the  history.  It  is  well  adapted 
to  the  use  of  students  in  the  higher  classes." 

Reuben  Post  Halleck,  Principal  Male  High  School,  Louisvillt,  Ky.: 
"  The  statements  are  clear,  definite,  and  interesting.  The  list  of  books 
for  consultation  is  very  wisely  selected." 

John  F.  Haines,  Supt.  of  Schools,  Noblesvillt,  Ind.:  "  I  can  say  most 
enthusi  <stically  that  for  clearness  of  statement  and  orderly  arrangement  1 
have  never  seen  its  equal." 

Albert  A.  Sanford,  Stale  Normal  School,  Stevens  Point,  Wis.  :  "  The 
Suggestive  Questions  and  Topics  are  the  best  I  have  ever  seen  introduced 
into  a  text.  The  maps  showing  movement  of  population  are  very  useful 


THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY, 

66  FIFTH  AVENUE,   NEW  YORK. 

2 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 
An  Outline  of  Political  History,  J492-J87 \ 

By  GOLDWIN  SMITH,  D.C.L. 
Third  Edition.     With  Map.    Crown  8vo.    $2.OO. 


"  His  survey  of  events  is  luminous,  his  estimate  of  character  is  singu- 
larly  keen  and  just,  and  his  style  is  at  once  incisive,  dignified,  and  scholarly. 
.  .  .  No  one  who  takes  up  Mr.  Goldwin  Smith's  volume  will  readily  lay  it 
down  before  he  has  finished  it ;  no  one  will  lay  it  down  without  acknowledg- 
ing the  rare  gifts  of  the  writer." —  The  Times. 

"  Is  a  literary  masterpiece,  as  readable  as  a  novel,  remarkable  for  its 
compression  without  dryness,  and  its  brilliancy  without  any  rhetorical  effort 
or  display.  What  American  could,  with  so  broad  a  grasp  and  so  perfect  a 
style,  have  rehearsed  our  political  history  from  Columbus  to  Grant  in  three 
hundred  duodecimo  pages  of  open  type,  or  would  have  manifested  greater 
candor  in  his  judgment  of  men  and  events  in  a  period  of  four  centuries?  It 
is  enough  to  say  that  no  one  before  Mr.  Smith  has  attempted  the  feat,  and 
that  he  has  the  field  to  himself." —  The  Nation. 

"  It  is  a  marvel  of  condensation  and  lucidity.  In  no  other  book  is  the 
same  field  covered  so  succinctly  and  so  well.  Of  the  five  chapters,  the  first 
deals  with  the  Colonial  epoch,  the  second  with  the  Revolutionary  period, 
the  third  and  fourth  review  the  history  of  the  Federal  Government  to  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  and  the  fifth  depicts  the  era  of  rupture  and  recon- 
struction. We  have  marked  certain  passages  for  extract;  but  the  truth  is 
that  almost  every  page  is  enriched  with  striking  comments  that  cause  the 
reader  to  carefully  reconsider,  if  not  to  change,  his  views  of  historical 
persons  and  events."  —  New  York  Sun. 

"  To  say  that  nothing  comparable  with  this  most  instructive  and  enchant- 
ing volume  has  hitherto  come  from  Professor  Smith's  pen,  would,  perhaps, 
be  only  anticipating  the  judgment  of  its  readers." —  Toronto  Mail. 

"  As  a  whole,  has  a  comprehensiveness  of  view  and  a  ready  grasp  of 
leading  tendencies  that  should  make  it  particularly  useful  to  the  busy  man 
who  desires  a  rapid  survey  of  American  political  history.  By  deliberately 
neglecting  details,  Professor  Smith  has  been  able  to  fasten  the  attention 
upon  salient  points,  and  to  concentrate  interest  around  the  career  of  the 
great  leaders  in  our  political  development." —  Boston  Beacon. 

"  No  pen  has  ever  been  more  eloquent  than  his  in  setting  forth  the  merits 
of  Washington,  and  Hamilton,  and  Webster,  and  Lincoln,  and  others  of 
America's  great  citizens.  The  chapters  on  '  Democracy  and  Slavery '  and 
'  Rupture  and  Reconstruction '  deserve  thoughtful  perusal  by  every  Ameri- 
can, North  and  South."  —  Public  Opinion. 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY, 

66  FIFTH  AVENUE,  NEW  YORK. 


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